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COMMON   SCHOOL 

Examiner  and  Review, 

A  COLLECTION  OP  QUESTIONS  USED  BY 

STATE,  COUNTY  AND  CITY  SUPERINTENDENTS 


IN  THE    EXAMINATION    OF  TEACHERS   AND    PUPILS ;   ANSAVERED 
IN  THE    CLEAREST   AND  BRIEFEST  MANNER. 


DESIGNED  FOR 

EXAMINERS,  TEACHERS,  PUPILS  AND  INSTITUTE 
CONDUCTORS. 


I.  H.  BROWlSr, 

'I 


PRICE,    ONE    DOLLAR. 


ST.   LOUIS: 
I.  11.  BROWN  &  CO. 

1888. 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1887,  by 

I.  H.  BROWN, 

in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington,  D.  C 


Press  of  BecktoJd  (^  Co., 

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Printing  Company. 


L^ 


mis 


FA.GE. 

Arithmetic,  Questions  on 33 

Arithmetic,  Answers  to  Questions  on 43 

Botany,  Questions  on 259 

Botany,  Answers  to  Questions  on 264 

Civil  Government,  Questions  on 240 

Civil  Government,  Answers  to  Questions  on     .        .        .        .  245 

Geogi-aphy,  General  Questions  on     ,        ....        .  100 

Geography,  General  Answers  to  Questions  on          ...  119 

Geography,  Physical,  Questions  on 162 

Geography,  Physical,  AnsAvers  to  Questions     ....  157 

Grammar,  Questions  on 65 

Grammar,  Answers  to  Questions  on 76 

History  of  U.  S.,  Questions  on 175 

History  of  U.  S.,  Answers  to  Questions  on       ...        .  194 

Orthography,  Questions  on 8 

Orthography,  Answers  to  Questions  on 11 

Penmanship,  Questions  on         .......  28 

Penmanship,  Answers  to  Questions  on 30 

Philosophy,  Questions  on 327 

Philosophy,  Answers  to  Questions  on 334 

Physiology,  Questions  on  .,.•...        .  278 

Physiology,  Answers  to  Questions  on 284 

Reading,  Questions  on 18 

Reading,  Answers  to  Questions  on 21 

Rules  Governing  Examinations 5 

Suggestions  by  the  Author 7 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  Questions  on      .        .        .  343 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  Answers  to  Questions  on  .  353 

Zoology,  Questions  on 302 

Zoology,  Answers  to  Questions  on 308 

(3) 


00150 


TO  THE  PUBLIC. 


The  favor  with  which  former  editions  of  the  COMMON  SCHOOL 
EXAMINER  AND  REVIEW  has  beeu  received  justifies  the  Pub- 
lishers ia  adding  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  to  the  list  of 
subjects. 

As  in  the  preparation  of  other  branches,  a  wide  field  has  been 
culled  for  suitable  matter.  The  questious  are  those  used  by  Insti- 
tute Conductors,  County  and  City  Superintendents  in  the  exam- 
ination of  teachers. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  include  only  those  questions  whose 
answering  would  occasion  some  difficulty. 

The  work  as  now  presented  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  use  of 

1.  Candidates  preparing  for  teacher's  examination. 

2.  Scliolars  reviewing  branches  of  school  study. 

3.  Institute  Conductors  desirous  of  securing  the  best  results 
in  the  shortest  time. 

SENT  POST-PAID  TO  ANT  ADDRESS  ON  RECEIPT  OF  $1. 

Address  all  orders  to 

I.  H.  BROWN  &  CO., 

8t.  Louis,  Mo. 


COMMON  SCHOOL 
EXAMINER  AND  REVIEW. 


RTTLES  GOVERNING  EXAMINATIONS. 

The  following  rules  will  give  the  candidate  an  idea  of  the  regula- 
tions governing  examinations  in  different  States,  Counties,  and 
Cities. 

1.  The  object  of  this  examination  is  to  ascertain 
your  knowledge  of  the  subjects  required  by  law,  and 
your  ability  to  present  their  principles  correctly  and 
clearly :  the  result  of  the  examination  depends  upon 
your  success  in  showing  these  conditions. 

2.  Provide  yourself  with  paper,  pens,  and  ink. 

3.  Be  prepared  to  begin  each  subject  at  the  time 
appointed. 

4.  No  reference  books  or  notes  will  be  permitted  in 
the  examination  room. 

5 


6         RULES  GOVERNING  EXAMINATIONS. 

5.  Do  not  communicate  during  the  examination  in 
any  manner  with  any  one  except  the  examiner :  the 
papers  of  those  who  violate  this  rule  will  not  be  exam- 
ined. 

6.  Number  and  letter  your  answers  to  correspond 
with  the  questions  and  their  subdivisions. 

7.  Write  in  a  legible  hand  :  no  time  can  be  spent  in 
deciphering  ambiguous  expressions  ;  — all  such  will  be 
considered  as  evidence  of  the  writer's  inability  to  spell 
or  to  use  them  correctly,  and  will  be  charged  to  his 
spelling  and  grammar. 

8.  Let  every  answer  be  clear,  definite,  and  com- 
plete. 

9.  Divide  your  work  into  paragraphs,  so  that  each 
answer  shall  stand  out  prominently. 

10.  If  you  do  not  understand  a  question,  raise  your 
hand  for  an  explanation. 

11.  Pass  such  questions  as  you  cannot  answer,  leav- 
ing a  blank  space  numbered  according  to  the  place  it 
occupies.  t 

12.  Ask  no  indulgences  or  allowances:  such  a  re- 
quest implies  presumptive  deficiency. 

13.  Absence,  except  in  case  of  sickness,- will  debar 
the  candidate  from  examination  in  the  branch  of  study 
missed. 

14.  Fold  your  completed  paper,  and  write  your 
name  and  subject  on  the  back.  [Some  examiners  re- 
quire the  number  by  which  candidates  are  designated 
to  be  written  on  the  papers.] 


RULES  GOVERNING  EXAMINATIONS. 


Suggestions  by  tlie  Author. 

1.  Observe  propriety  in  dress,  manner,  and  behavior:  a  fop, 
clown,  or  a  boor  is  out  of  place  in  the  school  room. 

2.  Any  unfairness  in  obtaining  answers  deprives  the  candidate  of 
the  first  condition  required  for  a  certificate  —  moral  character. 
Be  above  suspicion. 

S.  The  only  favors  you  should  expect  will  be  of  the  nature  of  a 
premium  for  the  neatness,  order,  and  promptness  you  exhibit. 

4.  Examine  the  paper  given  you,  answering  mentally  the  ques- 
tions with  which  you  are  familiar  before  committing  anything  to 
paper. 

5.  Examiners  take  nothing  for  granted:  be  explicit. 

6.  Examiners'  impressions  decide  all  doubtful  answers:  they 
reason  that  what  you  know  you  can  explain  clearly. 

7.  Keep  your  manuscript  till  it  is  called  for.  See  that  it  contains 
no  errors  which  you  can  correct. 

8.  The  minimum  of  speech  during  recesses,  will  give  you  the 
maximum  of  intellectual  power  when  wanted. 

9.  To  avoid  embarrassment,  the  respiration  should  be  full,  deep, 
and  vigorous. 


QUESTIONS  ON  ORTHOGR.^JPHY. 

1.  Define  the  following  terms:  (a)  Orthography, 
(6)  Phonology,  (c)  Orthoepy,  (d)  letter,  (e)  Elemen- 
tary Sound. 

2.  (a)  How  many  elementary  sounds  does  the  Eng- 
lish language  contain?     (b)  How  divided? 

3.  Name  the  voice-producing  organs. 

4.  Name  the  organs  employed  in  speech. 

5.  Into  what  two  classes  are  letters  divided? 

6.  Into  what  classes  are  the  consonants  divided  ac- 
cording to  the  organs  employed  in  their  production? 

7.  (a)  What  are  sub  vocals?     (5)  Name  them. 

8.  (rt)  Wliat  are  aspirates?     (b)  Name  them. 

9.  Name  the  consonant  combinations. 

10.  Define  the  following  terms:  (a)  cognates,  (b) 
liquids,  (c)  coalescents,  (d)  explodents,  (e)  continu- 
ants. 

11.  Name  the  uses  of  silent  letters. 

12.  What  is  the  distinction  between  the  name  and 
the  power  of  a  letter? 

13.  Define  the  following  terms :  (a)  Diphthong,  (b ) 
Digraph,  (c)  Trigraph,  (d)  Syllable,  (e)  Word. 

8 


QUESTIONS    ON    ORTHOGRAPHY.  \) 

14.  Classify  the  letters  ^  in  alien,  ce  in  ocean,  ti  in 
notion. 

15.  When  are  20  and  ?/  vowels?  Consonants? 

16.  What  is  syllabication? 

17.  How  should  words  be  divided  at  the  end  of  the 
line  ? 

18.  When  is  the  hyphen  most  commonly  used? 

19.  AVhat  is  the  essential  part  or  base  of  a  syl- 
lable? 

20.  Why  are  words  divided  into  syllables? 

21.  Define  orthographic  synthesis  and  analysis. 

22.  What  faculties  does  the  exercise  of  spelling 
chiefly  tend  to  cultivate  ? 

23.  How  are  words  classified  with  regard  to  the 
number  of  syllables  they  contain? 

24.  («)  How  are  words  classified  according  to  their 
formation?     (h)  Define  the  classes. 

25.  (a)  Define  accent.  (6)  What  two  kinds?  (c) 
Tell  how  each  is  denoted  and  where  it  is  commonly 
placed,  (d)  State  what  effect  a  change  of  accent  may 
produce. 

•    26.  (a)  What  are  the  significant  parts  of  many  de- 
rivative words?     (6)  Define  each. 

27.  What  is  the  usual  ofiice  of  Prefixes  and  Suffixes 
respectively? 

28.  In  the  change  of  prefixes  applied  to  certain  de- 
rivative words  for  the  sake  of  euphony  or  analog}^ 
what  is  the  usual  practice  ? 

29.  Mention  some  elementary  sounds  which  have  no 
single  character  to  represent  them. 


10  QUESTIONS   ON    ORTHOGRAPHY. 

30.  Under  what  circumstances  is  a  word  formed 
by  prefixes  or  suffixes  primitive  ? 

31.  (a)  Which  letters  have  no  sound  of  their  own? 
(6)  Which  letters  are  never  silent?  (c)  When  is  m 
silent?  (tZ)  When  is  final  e  silent?  (e)  What  would 
be  the  result  if  final  e  was  not  silent? 

32.  State  the  relative  advantages  of  oral  and  written 
spelling  as  a  drill  exercise. 

33.  With  the  word  incomprehensihility ,  show  the 
proper  application  of  the  terms  penult,  antepenult, 
etc. 

34.  What  sounds  has  ifA?  Give  sounds  illustrating 
each. 

35.  What  advantao-e  arises  from  a  knowledge  of  the 
rules  for  the  duplication  of  consonants  ? 

36.  State  and  illustrate  the  rules  for  doubling  the 
final  consonant  of  words   receivino;  a  sufiix  beginnino- 

O  DO 

with  a  vowel. 

37.  {a)  Into  what  is  final  y  preceded  by  a  consonant 
usually  changed  upon  receiving  a  sufiix?  (6)  What 
occurs  when  the  final  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel  ? 

38.  Give  rules  for  the  spelling  of  words  derived 
from  radicals  ending  in  silent  e. 

39.  State  a  rule  for  spelling  words  derived  from 
radicals  ending  with  a  double  letter. 

40.  Give  an  orthographic  analysis  of  the  word  dis- 
contentment. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON    ORTHOGRAPHY.  11 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  OX  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1.  (a)  Orthography  is  the  art  of  writing  words  with 
the  proper  letters  according  to  common  usage,  (b) 
Phonology  is  the  science  of  uttering  the  elementary 
sounds,  (c)  Orthoepy  is  the  art  of  uttering  w^ords 
with  propriety,  (d)  A  letter  is  the  least  distinct  part 
of  a  written  word  representing  one  or  more  elemen- 
tary sounds,  (e)  An  elementary  sound  is  the  simplest 
sound  of  a  language  uttered  by  a  single  impulse  of 
voice. 

2.  (a)  The  English  language  contains  forty-four 
elementary  sounds.  (5)  They  are  divided  into  vocals, 
subvocals  and  aspirates. 

3.  Abdominal  and  Thoracic  Muscles,  the  Dia- 
phragm,   the     Thorax,  the    Pleura,  the  Lungs,    the 

Trachea  and  the  Larynx. 

4.  The  Lips,  Teeth,  Tongue,  Palate  and  Nasal 
organs  assisted  by  the  respiratory  organs. 

5.  Letters  are  divided  into  vowels  and  consonants. 

6.  Labials,  or  lip  sounds;  Linguals,  or  tongue 
sounds;  Lingua-Dentals,  or  tongue-teeth-sounds  ;  Lin- 
gua-Nasals, or  tongue-nose-sounds;  Palato-Nasals,  or 
palate-nose  sounds,  and  Palatals. 

7.  {a)  Subvocals  are  those  sounds  produced  by  the 
voice  modified  by  the  speech  organs.  (5)  The  sub- 
vocals are:  Labials,  b,  v,  lo,  m;  Lingua-Dentals,  d,  th, 
j,Zj  ^/«;  Linguals,  l,r;  Lingua-Nasal,  ?i,-  Palato-Nasal, 
ng ;  Palatals,  g  andy. 


12  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIOXS    ON"   ORTHOGRAPHY. 

8.  (a)  Aspirates  are  mere  breathings  modified  by 
the  speech  organs,  (b)  The  aspirates  are :  Labials,  j9, 
f,  ivh;  Lingua-Dentals,  t^  th,  ch,  5,  sh ;  Palatals,  A;, 
and  h. 

9.  The  consonant  combinations  are:  ch,  gli,  phy 
sh,  th,  wh,  and  ng. 

10.  (a)  Cognates  are  sounds  formed  by  the  same 
organs  in  different  positions.  (6)  Liquids  are  such 
sounds  as  flow  readily  into  other  sounds,  (c)  Coales- 
cents  unite  freely  with  other  sounds.  (fZ)  Explodents 
are  such  sounds  as  do  not  admit  of  prolongation,  (e) 
Continuants  are  sounds  which  are  capable  of  an  indefi- 
nite prolongation. 

11.  Silent  letters  are  used  first,  to  modify  the  sounds 
of  other  letters,  and  second,  to  show  the  origin  or  defi- 
nition of  words. 

12.  The  name  of  a  letter  is  the  term  by  which  it  is 
known ;  the  power  of  a  letter  is  the  elementary  sound 
it  represents. 

13.  (a)  A  Dipthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowel 
sounds  in  the  same  syllable ;  as,  ou,  ow,  oi,  and  oy. 
(6)  A  Digraph  is  the  combination  of  two  letters  to 
represent  one  sound;  as  ai,  ph,  etc.  (c)  A  Tri- 
graph  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  the  same  sylla- 
ble, not  all  of  which  are  sounded;  as,  ieu  in  lieu, 
(d)  A  syllable  is  a  sound  or  a  combination  of  sounds 
produced  by  a  single  vocal  impulse,  (e)  A  AVord  is 
a  syllable  or  a  combination  of  syllables  used  as  the  sign 
of  an  idea. 


ans'\\t:rs  to  questions  on  orthography.       13 

14.  The  i  m  alien  is  a  substitute  iory,  and  is  there- 
fore a  consonant,  subvocal,  palatal.  In  ocean  and 
notion,  ceand  ti  are  substitutes  for  sh,  and  are  conso- 
nant, aspirate,  lingua-dentals. 

15.  When  w  and  y  represent  u  and  ^  they  are  vowels ; 
they  are  consonants  when  they  precede  a  vowel  in  the 
same  syllable. 

16.  Syllabication  is  the  correct  division  of  words 
into  syllables. 

17.  Words  should  be  divided  at  the  end  of  a  line  by 
syllables  only. 

18.  Between  recently  compounded  words  ;  bctAveen 
syllables  at  the  end  of  the  line ;  between  syllables  to 
show  more  clearly  their  pronunciation. 

19.  The  vowel.  There  is  an  apparent  exception  in 
the  second  syllable  of  such  words  as  table,  castle, 
muscle. 

20.  To  assist  in  their  pronunciation. 

21.  Synthesis  is  the  process  of  combining  elemen- 
tary sounds.  Analysis  is  the  process  of  separating  a 
syllable  or  word  into  its  elementary  sounds. 

22.  The  faculties  of  memory,  observation  and  dis- 
crimination. 

23.  As  Monosi/Ilables,  one  syllable ;  Bissrjllahles, 
two  syllables;  Trisyllahles,  three  syllables:  Poly- 
syllables, many  syllables. 

24.  (a)  Into  Simple  and  Compound,  Primitive 
and  Derivative,  (h)  1st.  A  Simple  word  is  one  which 
is  not  formed  by  uniting  two  or  more  words;  as,  son, 
father. 


14       ans^\ti:rs  to  questions  on  orthography. 

2nd.  A  Compound  word  is  formed  of  two  or  more 
simple  words;  as,  son-in-law ,  father-in-laio . 

3rd.  A  Primitive  word  is  one  not  formed  from  any 
other  word  in  the  same  language  ;  as,  man^  rain. 

4th.  A  Derivative  word  is  one  formed  by  joining 
to  a  primitive  word  some  letter  or  syllable  to  modify 
its  meaning  ;  as,  manly,  raining. 

25.  ((«)  Accent  is  a  marked  stress  applied  to  some 
particular  syllable.  (5)  Certain  words  have  two  ac- 
cents, viz.,  a  primary  and  a  secondary,  (c)  The  pri- 
mary is  the  more  forcible,  and,  in  words  having  more 
than  one  accent,  usually  follows  the  secondary.  The 
primary  is  denoted  thus  ('),  the  secondary,  thus  ("), 
as  in  " -com-pat-i  bil ' -i-ty.  (cZ)  A  change  of  accent 
sometimes  changes  the  meaning  of  a  word  ;  as,  Au '  gust, 
the  month,  and  au  gust',  majestic  ;  sometimes  a  differ- 
ent part  of  speech  is  indicated  by  a  change  of  accent ; 
as,  in 'suit,  the  noun,  in  suit',  the  verb. 

26.  (a)  Roots,  prefixes,  and  suffixes.  (6)  The  Root 
is  that  part  of  a  derivative  word  modified  by  a  prefix 
or  a  suffix.  A  Prefix  is  that  part  of  a  derivative  word 
which  is  placed  before  the  root.  A  suffix  is  that  part 
of  a  derivative  word  which  is  placed  after  the  root. 

27.  Prefixes  modify  the  meaning  of  a  primitive 
word;  while  Suffixes,  in  addition,  usually  determine 
its  part  of  speech.  Ex.  — /mproper,  not  proper,  an 
adjective.     Property,  in  a  proper  manner,  an  adverb. 

28.  The  last  letter  of  the  prefix  must  often  be  the 
same  as  the  first  letter  of  the  root,  as,  cor-rect,  instead 
of  co-rect. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON   ORTHOGRAPHY.  15 

29.  The  sounds  represented  by  the  following  combin- 
ations: o/,  ow,  0?/,  ow,  ng^  th,  ch  (soft),  shy  zh, 

30.  When  by  the  addition  of  prefixes  or  suffixes  the 
nrieaning  of  both  root  and  prefix  or  suffix  is  changed, 
the  word  remains  primitive;  as,  re  and  proof  mihQ 
word  reproof y  which  is  a  primitive  word. 

31.  (a)  C,  cc,  and  q.  (b)  Fj  J,  q,  r,  x,  v,  z.  (c) 
In  mnemonics.  (cZ)  When  preceded  by  another  vowel 
in  the  same  syllable;  as,  mate,  tape,  rice,  ride,  (e) 
An  additional  syllable  would  be  formed. 

32.  The  exercise  of  oral  spelling  in  young  children 
cultivates  a  clear,  distinct,  and  energetic  articulation, 
and  a  readiness  of  speech.  Written  spelling  fixes  the 
forms  of  words  in  the  mind  and  gives  practice  in  writ- 
ing. 

33.  The  last  syllable  (ty)  is  the  ultima.  The  last 
but  one  (i)  is  the  penult.  The  last  but  two  (bil)  is  the 
antepenult.  The  last  but  three  (si)  is  the  preante- 
penult. 

34.  Aspirate  as  in  thin,  and  sub  vocal  as  in  thine. 

35.  By  an  examination  of  the  word  we  may  deter- 
mine whether  the  final  consonant  should  be  doubled  or 
not. 

36.  Monosyllables  and  other  words  accented  on  the 
last  syllable,  ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by 
a  single  vowel,  double  their  final  consonant  before  a 
suffix  that  begins  with  a  vowel ;  as,  spot,  —  spotted, 
begin,  —  beginning. 

37.  {a)  The  final  y  of  a  radical  word  when  pre- 
ceded by  a  consonant,  is  generally  changed  to  i 
upon  the  addition  of  a  suffix  ;  as,  try,  — trial,  happy,  — 


16  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS  ON   ORTHOGRAPHY. 

happiness,  (h)  If  the  final  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel 
the  y  remains  unchanged  upon  receiving  a  suffix;  as, 
buy,  —  buyer,  glory,  —  glorying. 

38.  1st.  Final  e  of  the  radical  word  is  rejected  when 
the  suffix  begins  with  a  vowel,  except  in  words  ending 
in  ce  and  ge;  as,  moving,  peaceable. 

2nd.  Final  e  of  a  radical  word  is  usually  retained 
when  the  suffix  begins  with  a  consonant,  as,  in  hope, — 
hopeless,  move, —  movement. 

Exceptions. — Awful,  judgment,  truly,  wholly, 
abridgment ,  acknowledgment. 

39.  Words  ending  in  a  double  letter  preserve  it 
double  in  their  derivatives  unless  the  syllable  affixed 
begins  with  the  same  letter ;  as,  seeing,  skillful. 

40.  Discouteutnient  is  a  simple  derivative  ])olysyl- 
lable  of  four  syllables,  accented  primarily  on  the  third 
syllable,  and  secondarily  on  the  first,  derived  from 
content.  Content,  the  radical,  is  modified,  first  by  the 
prefix  diSf  meaning  not,  and,  second,  by  the  suffix 
ment,  meaning  state  of  being.  The  word  signifies  "  the 
state  of  being  discontented.^' 

d is  aconsonant'Subvocal-lingua-dcntal. 

i is  a  vowel,  short  sound,  the  base  of  first  syl- 
lable. 

s is  a   consonant-aspirate-lingua-dentai,  normal 

sound. 

c is  a  substitute  for  k,  a  consonant-aspirate-pala- 
tal. 

o is  a  vowel,  short  obscure  sound,  base  of  second 

syllable. 

n is  a  consonant-subvocal-lingua-nasal. 


ANSWERS   TO  QUESTIONS  ON   ORTHOGRAPHY. 


17 


t is  a  consonant-aspirate-lingua-dental. 

e is  a  vowel,  short  sound,  base  of  third  syllable. 

n is  a  consonant-sub  vocal-lingua-nasal. 

t is  a  consonant-aspirate-lingua-dental. 

m is  a  consonant-subvocal-labial. 

e is  a  vowel,  short  obscure  sound,  base  of  fourth 

syllable,     n  and  t  same  as  n  and  t  above. 

Some  of  the  following  words  have  been  found  in 
nearly  every  list  examined.  The  candidate  who  as- 
pires to  a  creditable  stg^nding  in  sj5elling  should  master 
the  list. 


gauge 

nonpareil 

mullein 

sadducee 

guerrilla 

indelible 

lachrymal 

Pleiades 

apostasy 

Pentateuch 

camomile 

gherkin 

bicycle 

mnemonics 

inoculate 

plebeian 

bowie-knife 

apocal3'pse 

isosceles 

apocrypha 

caisson 

idiosyncrasy 

caoutchouc 

dishabille 

euchre 

plagiarism 

purslain 

pusillanimous 

elecampane 

surcingle 

bacchanalian 

scirrhus 

exchequer 

mademoiselle 

anachronism 

scarify 

ghoul 

initiation 

corpuscle 

balustrade 

fusillade 

mayoralty 

chenille 

titillation 

cynical 

rescission 

corypheus 

superannuated 

inflammatory 

Pyrrhonism 

aphyllous 

syzygy 

cuirassier 

harelipped 

saccharine 

panacea 

porphyry 

millionaire 

cavalier 

hypocritical 

paraphernalia 

sanatory 

millennium 

daguerreian 

whimsey 

alpaca 

stadtholder 

mammalia 

exhilarate 

meerschaum 

colonelcy 

sibylline 

novitiate 

terrify 

hygiene 

holly-hock 

vicissitude 

beleaguer 

labyrinth 

secession 

QUESTIONS  ON  READING. 

>'  1.  (a)  How  many  and  what  kinds  of  reading  are 
there?  (6)  l^liatis  the  purpose  of  each ?  (c)and(c7) 
Name  at  least  five  requisites  for  each  kind  of  reading. 

2.  Define  Reading  as  an  Art. 

3.  What  is  Elocution  ? 

4.  Why  is  Reading  less  effectively  taught  in   our 
schools  than  some  other  branches  ? 

5.  State  how  Reading  may  be  taught  so  as  to  secure 
results  commensurate  with  the  time  it  usually  receives. 

6.  Upon  what  is  voice  dependent? 

7.  How  can  a  clear,  full,  flexible  voice  be  secured? 

8.  Give  a  description  of  the  pupil's  position  while 
reading. 

9.  Explain  the  Word  Method  of  teaching  Reading. 

10.  What  is  the  Phonic  Method  of  teaching  Read- 
ing?    State  its  distinctive  purpose. 

11.  Describe  the  Sentence  Method  of  teaching  Read 
ing. 

12.  Is  it  possible  for  a  poor  reader  to  teach  reading  ? 
If  so,  to  what  extent? 

7^^3.  What  is  Articulation? 
18 


QUESTIONS    ON    EEADING.  19 

14.  How  can  a  distinct  and  correct  articulation  be 
acquired  ? 

15.  Name   the    Essential    Elements    of    vocal    ex- 
pression, and  tell  why  called  essential  elements. 

16.  Define  the  term  Resonance  as  used  in  Reading. 

17.  What  is  Quality  of  Voice? 

18.  Into  what  two  classes  may  quality  be  divided? 
What  does  each  embrace  ? 

19.  Define    the    following;    (a)    Pure    Tone,    (b) 
Orotund,  (c)  Plaintive,  (6)  Pectoral,  (e)  Guttural. 

20.  How  does  the  quality  of  voice   determine  the 
emotions  of  the  speaker  ? 

y^^21.  What  classes  of  sentiment  are  expressed  by  the 
following  Voice  Qualities  :  Pure  Tone,  Orotund,  Plain- 
tive, Pectoral,  Guttural,  Aspirate? 

22.  What  is  meant  by  Force  in  Reading? 

23.  What  relation  does  Stress  bear  to  Force? 
"^-"24:.  Define  Pitch,  and  state  its  natural  divisions. 

25.  What  does  the  term  Compass  mean? 

26.  Define  Movement,  and  name  its  divisions. 

27.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  Quantity? 

28.  What  terms  are  commonly  employed  to  desig- 
nate the  different  kinds  of  Stress? 

29.  Explain     the    difference     between    Slides    and 
Waves. 

30.  Define  Slur. 

^"2-31.  What  is  Emphasis?     How  is  it  effected? 

32.  State    the    difference    between    Absolute   and 
Antithetic  Emphasis. 


20  QUESTIONS    ON   READING. 

33.  What  is  meant  by  Cadence  ? 

34.  Give  a  general  rule  for  the  use  of  the  Downward 
Slide. 

35.  Give  a  general  rule  for  the  use  of  the  Upward 
Slide. 

3G.  State  the  general  law  governing  the  use  of 
Waves. 

37.   (a)  What  is  Personation?  {h)  What  does  it  re- 
quire ? 
■^-  38.  What  ]s  meant  by  Monotone? 

39.  State  the  difference  between  grammatical  and 
rhetorical  pauses. 

"^40.   (a)  What    is  a  Climax?    {h)  How  should  it   be 
read  ? 

41.  What  is  Transition  ? 

42.  (a)  What  is  a  Series?  (6)  How  many  kinds ? 
-43.  AVhat  is  Modulation  ? 

44.  Explain  the  term  Grouping  as  applied  to  Read- 
ing. 

45.  How  is  Slide  sometimes  affected  by  emphasis? 

46.  Define  a  Parenthetical  Clause,  and  state  how  it 
should  be  read. 

47.  (a)  What  physical  habits  ought  a  pupil  to  form 
from  reading  aloud?  {b)  What  had  physical  habits 
may  be  formed  in  reading  classes  under  poor  teachers? 

48.  What  are  the  chief  objects  to  be  attained  in  the 
study  and  practice  of  reading? 

49.  Describe  the  style  of  reading  which  may  be 
considered  in  the  hio;hest  deo;ree  excellent. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  EEADING.  21 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  READING. 

1.  (a)  Two:  Silent,  or  Intellectual,  and  Audible,  or 
Oral,  (b)  The  apprehension  of  the  thought  and  the  ex- 
pression of  the  thought. 

(c)  For  Silent  Readmg.  (^d)  For  Audible  Reading. 

Quick  Perception.  All  Required  for  Silent  Reading. 

Keen  Discernment.  Respiratory  Command. 

Clear  Conception.  Distinct  Articulation. 

Vi\'id  Imagination.  Imitative  Power. 

Good  Taste  and  Judgment.     Command  of  Voice. 

Expressive  Action. 

Correct  Personal  Habits. 

2.  Reading  as  an  art  is  the  interpretation  and  ex- 
pression of  thought,  sentiment,  and  emotion  as  pres- 
ented in  written  or  printed  composition. 

3.  Elocution  is  the  expression  of  thought,  emotion, 
and  passion  by  all  the  organs  of  the  body,  in  an  easy, 
graceful,  and  effective  manner. 

4.  First,  for  the  want  of  skill  among  teachers. 
Second,  the  absence  of  a  definite  standard  of  excellence 
in  reading.  Third,  the  lack  of  interest  among  pupils 
in  the  matter  contained  in  their  books. 

5.  The  teacher  should  arouse  the  interest  of  pupils 
by  first  reading  the  lesson  properly  and  effectively 
before  the  class,  and  then  by  skillfully  questioning 
the  pupils,  concentrate  their  attention  upon  the  thought 
and  its  expression. 

6.  Upon  a  proper  and  sufficient  supply  of  air. 


22 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON   EEADING. 


7.  By  a  daily  and  systematic  exercise  in  Eespiration, 
Articulation,  and  Waves. 

8.  Book  in  left  hand,  thumb  and  little  finger  in 
front;  first,  second,  and  third  fingers  at  the  back  of  the 

book  ;  the  elbow  not  touching 
the  side.  The  book  should 
be  held  in  such  a  manner  that 
a  line  drawn  from  the  eyes 
toward  the  page  would  inter- 
sect the  plane  of  the  book  at 
right  angles.  The  full  face 
of  the  pupil  should  be  seen 
by  the  teacher.  The  weight 
of  the  body  should  be  sup- 
ported, while  reading y  on 
BOTH  feet,  the  left  heel  two 
or  three  inches  in  advance  of 
the  hollow  of  the  right  foot. 
The  chest  should  be  elevated 
and  expanded,  the  position 
erect  and  easy. 

9.   TheWord  Method  con- 
sists in  recognizing  words  as 
wholes  without  reference  to 
the  letters  of  which  they  are 
THE  reader's  position.  Composed. 

lO.  The  Phonic  Method  consists  in  uttering  each  ele- 
mentary sound  of  words  with  exaggerated  distinctness. 
Its  purpose  is  to  cultivate  the  speech  organs  rather 
than  to  give  facility  in  distinguishing  words. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  READING.  23 

11.  The  Sentence  Method  consists  in  presenting  an 
entire  sentence  as  the  unit  of  thought  without  refer- 
ence to  the  words  of  which  it  is  composed. 

12.  It  is  possible  to  the  same  extent  that  dancing, 
singing,  fencing,  etc.,  may  be  taught  by  a  tyro  in  those 
arts. 

13.  Articulation  is  the  utterance  of  the  sounds  of  a 
lano:ua2;e. 

14.  Spell  by  sound  with  decided  force  and  distinct- 
ness such  words  as  contain  many  unharmonious  sounds ; 
as,  peremptory ,  legible,  mangled'' st,  obligatory . 

15.  Quality,  Force,  Stress,  Pitch,  and  Movement 
are  called  Essential  Elements,  because  they  are  found 
in  the  utterance  of  every  sentence. 

16.  Resonance  in  reading  me  ans  the  location  whence 
the  sound  appears  to  come. 

17.  Quality  of  Voice  is  the  nature,  character  or  kind 
of  tone  used. 

18.  Normal  and  Abnormal  Qualities.  The  Normal 
qualities  are  Pure  Tone  and  Orotund.  The  Abnormal 
qualities  are  Plaintive,  Pectoral,  Guttural,  Aspirate, 
Nasal,  and  Falsetto. 

19.  (a)  The  Pure  Tone  is  a  clear,  smooth,  musical 
tone  free  from  any  aspiration  or  harshness.  (6)  The 
Orotund  is  the  Pure  Tone  deepened  and  intensified  to 
its  utmost  magnitude,  with  the  resonance  in  the  chest, 
(c)  The  Plaintive  is  a  thin,  feeble  tone,  with  the  reso- 
nance in  the  forward  part  of  the  mouth,  {d)  The 
Pectoral  is  a  rough,  harsh,  husky,  hollow  tone  resem- 
bling the  Orotund,     (e)  The  Guttural  is   a  grating. 


24  ans^\t:rs  to  questions  on  eeadixg. 

rattling,  discordant  sound  produced  by  a  rigid  com- 
pression of  the  muscles  of  the  throat. 

20.  Different  qualities  arise  from  the  ever  changing 
sentiments  that  animate  the  human  mind,  and  the 
varied  physical  conditions  to  which  the  body  is  con- 
stantly subjected. 

21.  The  Pure  Tone  is  employed  to  express  solemn, 
serious,  tranquil,  narrative,  descriptive,  and  didactic 
thought. 

The  Orotund  is  used  to  express  earnest,  bold,  grand, 
and  lofty  thought  and  emotions  of  grandeur,  rever- 
ence, and  sublimity. 

The  Plaintive  Quality  expresses  feebleness,  exhaus- 
tion, languor,  and  affectation. 

The  Pectoral  is  used  to  express  sorrow,  dread, 
solemnity,  awe,  remorse. 

The  Guttural  indicates  fierce  anger,  hatred,  con- 
tempt, scorn,  loathing,  malice,  detestation. 

The  Aspirate  is  used  in  the  expression  of  secrecy, 
surprise,  fear,  caution,  and  expiring  life. 

22.  Force  is  the  degree  of  energy  with  which  sound 
is  sent  forth  from  the  vocal  organs.  It  is  not 
loudness. 

23.  Stress  is  the  application  of  force  to  some  par- 
ticular part  of  a  syllable  or  word.  It  is  not  accent. 
Accent  includes  the  entire  syllable. 

24.  Pitch  is  the  degree  of  elevation  or  depression  of 
sound.     Its  natural  divisions  are  Middle,  High,  Low. 

25.  Compass  is  the  range  "of  voice  above  and  below 
the  Key-note. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS  ON  READING.  25 

26.  Movement  is  the  degree  of  rapidity  with  which 
sounds  are  uttered  in  continued  discourse.  Its  divi- 
sions are  Moderate,  Eapid,  Slow. 

27.  Quantity  is  the  time  occupied  in  the  utterance 
of  single  syllables  or  words  ;  its  divisions  are  Medium, 
Long  and  Short. 

28.  Radical,  Median,  Final,  Compound,  Thorough, 
and  Intermittent. 

29.  Slides,  sometimes  termed  Inflections,  are 
changes  of  pitch  either  upward  or  downward  on  a  single 
sound.  Waves  are  compound  movements  of  voice, 
embracing  sometimes  combinations  of  several  slides. 

SO.  Slur  is  a  smooth,  rapid  and  subdued  movement 
of  voice  over  certain  phrases  and  clauses  of  less  im- 
portance than  others  with  which  they  stand  associated. 

31.  Emphasis  is  the  peculiar  utterance  of  words, 
phrases,  and  clauses  which  renders  them  specially  sig- 
nificant or  prominent.  It  is  effected  by  a  change  of 
Quality,  Force,  Stress,  Pitch  or  Movement  from  the 
prevailing  element. 

32.  Absolute  Emphasis  makes  prominent  some  word 
or  phrase  regardless  of  its  relation  to  other  ideas  con- 
tained in  the  sentence  ;  while  Antithetic  Emphasis  ex- 
presses a  contrast  between  two  or  more  ideas. 

33.  Cadence  is  a  general  lowering  of  pitch,  indi- 
cating the  close  of  a  sentence. 

34.  The  Downward  Slide  is  employed  in  sentences 
denoting  (1)  completeness  of  thought,  (2)  determina- 
tion, (3)  certainty,  (4)  positive  and  decisive  declara- 
tion, (5)  emphatic  declaration. 


26  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    READING. 

35.  The  Upward  Slide  is  employed  in  sentences  de- 
noting (1)  incompleteness  of  thought,  (2)  indifference, 
(3)  uncertainty,  (4)  doubt,  (5)  contingency,  (6) 
negation. 

36.  The  Waves,  of  which  there  are  nearly  two 
hundred  varieties,  are  used  in  the  expression  of  con- 
trast, double  meaning,  insinuation,  wit,  jest,  drollery, 
irony,  sarcasm,  sneer,  and  contempt. 

37.  (a)  Personation  consists  in  representing  the 
peculiarities  of  two  or  more  persons  in  speaking.  (6) 
The  skillful  personation  of  different  characters  requires 
a  careful  study  of  their  peculiar  temperaments,  condi- 
tions, and  circumstances,  and  the  application  of  the 
appropriate  vocal  and  facial  expression. 

38.  The  Monotone  consists  in  the  utterance  of 
several  successive  words  with  the  same  elements,  as 
quality,  force,  stress,  pitch,  and  movement. 

39.  Grammatical  pauses  are  the  punctuation  marks 
used  to  denote  the  grammatical  relation  of  words  and 
sentences,  thus  enabling  the  reader  to  understand 
the  same;  while  rhetorical  pauses  are  temporary 
suspensions  of  voice  used  to  give  effect  to  ex- 
pression. 

40.  (rt)  A  Climax  is  a  sentence  or  a  succession  of 
sentences  so  arranged  that  each  idea  rises  in  impor- 
tance, force,  or  dignity  above  that  which  precedes  it. 
(6)  It  should  be  read  with  a  gradual  increase  of  inten- 
sity of  all  the  vocal  elements. 

41.  Transition  is  a  change  in  the  manner  of  ex- 
pression in  obedience  to  the  change  of  sentiment. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIOXS    ON    READING.  27 

42.  («)  A  Series  is  a  succession  of  particulars  hav- 
ing the  same  grammatical  construction,  (b)  There 
are  two  kinds  :  the  Commencing  and  the  Concluding. 

43.  Modulation  is  the  ready  and  perfect  adaptation 
of  the  appropriate  elements  of  speech  to  the  sentiments 
designed  to  be  conveyed. 

44.  Grouping  is  the  skillful  arrangement  of  words, 
phrases,  and  sentences,  with  regard  to  the  elements 
employed  in  their  delivery,  into  such  groups  as  shall 
render  their  meaning  clear,  pleasing,  and  effective. 

45.  Words  having  the  Upward  Slide  sometimes  re- 
ceive the  Downward  Slide  when  emphasized. 

46.  A  Parenthetic  Clause  is  one  thrown  in  to  ex- 
plain, or  it  expresses  something  said  aside  from  the 
general  discourse.  It  should  be  read  with  a  lower 
pitch  and  a  more  rapid  movement  than  the  other  parts 
of  the  composition. 

47.  (a)  A  distinct  articulation,  correct  respiration, 
control  of  voice,  and  graceful  attitudes  and  action. 
(b)  Careless  articulation,  unpleasant  tones,  and  un- 
gainly attitudes. 

48.  To  develop  the  power  of  grasping  thought  and 
to'secure  proper  oral  expression  of  written  language. 

49.  That  reading  which  inspires  the  hearer  with 
emotions  similar  to  those  sensations  one  experiences 
while  listening  to  the  skillful  recital  of  interesting 
events  witnessed  by  the  narrator,  may  be  considered 
"  excellent." 


QUESTIONS  ON  PENMANSHIP. 

1.  What  are  the  principal  positions  at  the  desk  ? 

2.  Describe  the  correct  manner  of  holding  the  pen? 

3.  What  movements  are  employed  in  penmanship? 

4.  Which  of  the  various  movements  is  regarded 
best  for  general  business  purposes  ? 

5.  What  should  be  the  lirst  lesson  in  writing  with  a 
pen? 

6.  Explain  the  following  terms  used  in  writing:  (a) 
Base  line,  (6)  Head  line,  (c)  Intermediate  line,  (d) 
Top  line,  (e)  Space. 

7.  (a)  Define  Main  Slant,  (b)  Connective  Slant. 

8.  From  what  authority  is  derived  the  Main  and 
Connective  Slants. 

9.  What  is  the  unit  for  measuring  the  height  and 
width  of  letters  ? 

10.  (a.)  How  many  principles  are  employed  in  the 
Spencerian  System  (or  any  other  with  which  you  may 
be  familiar)  in  writing?  (b.)  Give  their  descriptive 
names. 

11.  How  should  the  paper  be  placed  upon  the  desk 
while  writing? 

28 


QUESTIONS    ON    PENMANSHIP.  29 

12.  Into  how  many  and  what  classes  are  the  small 
letters  divided? 

13.  State  the  heights  of  the  three  classes  of  small 
letters, 

14.  Name  in  alphabetical  order  (a)  the  short  letters, 
(b)  the  semi-extended  letters,  (c)  the  loop  letters. 

15.  (a)  Which  is  the  longest  of  the  small  letters? 
(6)  Which  is  the  widest? 

16.  Where  is  the  beginning  of  the  small  letters? 

17.  Where  are  the  small  letters  finished? 

18.  At  what  point  do  the  extended  loops  above  the 
base  line  cross? 

19.  How  far  below  the  base  line  do  the  loops  in  g, 
j,  etc.,  extend? 

20.  What  is  the  height  of  the  capitals  above  the  base 
line? 

21.  What  principles  or  elements  are  most  prominent 
in  the  formation  of  the  capitals? 

22.  What  distinction  should  be  made  between  I  and 
J? 

23.  What  is  the  general  rule  lor  spacing  and  com- 
bining small  letters  ? 

24.  (a)  What  is  the  general  rule  for  spacing  be- 
tween words  composed  entirely  of  small  letters?  {b) 
Rule  for  spacing  between  sentences  ? 

25.  State  and  illustrate  tiie  different  forms  of  shaded 
strokes  used  in  writing. 

26.  What  is  the  height  of  the  figures  in  medium 
handwritins:  ? 


30  ANSWEES  TO   QUESTIONS   ON"  PENIMAI^^SHIP. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    PENMANSHIP. 

1.  Front,  Left  Oblique,  Eight,  and  Eight  Oblique. 

2.  Take  the  pen  between  the  first  and  second  fin- 
gers and  the  thumb,  observing,  1st,  that  it  crosses  the 
second  finger  on  the  corner  of  the  nail ;  2d,  that  it 
crosses  the  forefinger  forward  of  the  knuckles;  3d, 
that  the  end  of  the  thumb  touches  the  holder  opposite 
the  lower  joint  of  the  forefinger;  4th,  that  the  top  of 
the  holder  points  toward  the  right  shoulder;  5th,  that 
the  wrist  is  above  the  paper,  and  the  hand  resting 
lightly  upon  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers ; 
6th,  that  the  uoint  of  the  pen  comes  squarely  to  the 
paper. 

3.  The  Finger  Movement,  the  Fore  Arm,  the  Whole 
Arm,  the  Combined  Fore  Arm  and  Finger,  and  the 
combined  Whole  Arm  and  Finger  Movements. 

4.  The  Combined  Fore  Arm  and  Finger  move- 
ment. 

5.  Correct  position  and  pen  holding. 

6.  (a)  The  Base  line  is  the  horizontal  line,  real  or 
imaginary,  on  w^iich  the  letters  rest,  {h)  The  Head 
line  marks  the  height  of  the  shortest  letters,  (c)  The 
Intermediate  line  marks  the  height  of  the  semi-ex- 
tended letters  t,  d,  and  p.  {d)  The  Top  line  marks 
the  height  of  the  extended  loop  letters  b,  1,  f,  etc. 
(e)  A  space  in  height  is  the  height  of  the  shortest  let- 
ters a,  e,  i,  etc.  A  space  in  width  is  the  distance  be- 
tween the  straight  lines  of  small  u. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  PENMANSHIP.  31 

7.  (a)  The  main  Slant  is  that  given  to  the  main  or 
downward  strokes  ;  it  forms  an  angle  of  about  52°  with 
the  horizontal.  (6)  The  connective  slant  is  that  which 
marks  the  lines  connecting  the  downward  strokes ;  it 
forms  with  the  horizontal  an  angle  of  30°. 

8.  From  the  practice  of  a  majority  of  the  best  pen- 
men. 

9.  The  height  of  small  ^  is  called  a  sjoace  in  height; 
the  distance  between  the  straight  lines  of  small  u  is 
called  a  space  in  width. 

10.  (a)  Seven  principles  or  elements  according  to 
the  Spencerian  System,  (b)  They  are  1st,  a  straight 
line  on  the  main  slant;  2d,  a  right  curve,  usually  on 
the  connective  slant ;  3d,  a  left  curve,  usually  on  the 
connective  slant ;  4th,  an  extended  loop,  three  spaces 
in  height;  5th,  the  capital  O,  or  direct  oval;  6th,  the 
reversed  oval;   7th,  the  capital  stem. 

11.  The  paper  should  be  so  placed  that  the  right 
arm  makes  with  the  ruled  lines  a  right  angle. 

12.  Three:  short,  semi-extended,  and  extended  or 
looped  letters. 

13.  Short  letters  are  one  space,  except  r  and  s, 
v/hich  are  one  and  a  quarter  spaces  ;  semi-extended, 
two  spaces  ;  extended  or  looped,  three  spaces. 

14.  (a)  The  short  letters  are  a,  c,  e,  ^,  m,  n,  o,  r,  .<?, 
u,  V,  w,  x;  (6)  The  semi-extended  letters  are  d,  p,  q, 
t;  (c)  The  loop  letters  are  b,f,  g,  h^j,  k,  I,  y,  z. 

15.  («)/isthe  longest;   {h)  m  is  the  widest. 

16.  On  the  base  line. 

17.  At  the  head  line. 


32  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON   PENMANSHIP. 

18.  At  the  head  line. 

19.  The  loop?  extend  two  spaces  below  the  base 
line. 

20.  Three  spaces. 

21.  The  Fifth,  Sixth,  and  Seventh,  according  to  the 
Spencerian  System. 

22.  The  J  should  extend  two  spaces  below  the  base 
line. 

23.  The  connecting  curve  should  be  carried  oneand-^ 
one-quarter  spaces  to  the  right  of  the  preceding  letter. 

24.  (a)  The  first  curve  should  begin  on  the  base 
line  one  and  one  half  spaces  to  the  right  of  the  final 
downward  stroke  of  the  preceding  word,  (b)  The 
spaces  between  sentences  should  be  twice  as  great  as 
between  words. 

25.  Five  forms  of  shaded  strokes  are  used  ;  they 
are  exemplified  in  the  letters  t,p,l,y,  O. 

26.  One  and  one-half  spaces,  except  the  6,  which 
extends  one-half  space  above,  and  the  7  and  9  which 
continue  one-half  space  below  the  other  figures. 


QUESTIONS    ON  ARITHMETIC. 

1.  Define  the  following  terms:  (a)  Mathematics, 
(6)  Arithmetic,  (c)  Integer,  (d)  Fraction,  (e)  Math- 
ematical Sign. 

2.  State  the  difference  between  an  abstract  and  a 
concrete  number,  and  illustrate. 

3.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  Simple  and 
Compound  Number?     Illustrate. 

4.  Define  the  following:  («)  A  Power,  (5)  A  Root, 
(c)  Demonstration,  (d)  An  Axiom,  (e)  Analysis. 

5.  Name  the  fundamental  operations  in  Arithmetic. 

6.  Why  are  ten  figures  used  in  the  Arabic  no- 
tation ? 

7.  What  systems  of  notation  are  in  general  use? 

8.  Name  the  ^ye  principles  upon  which  the  Roman 
notation  is  founded. 

9.  State  the  difference  between  the  simple  and  local 
value  of  a  figure. 

10.  Why,  in  adding,  do  we  begin  at  the  right  ? 

11.  Why  are  the  minuend,  subtrahend  and  difference 
like  numbers  ? 

12.  Why  must  the  multiplier  be  an  abstract  number? 

3  33 


34  QUESTIONS    OX   ARITHMETIC. 

13.  What  is  the  difference  between  long  and  short 
division? 

14.  Why  do  we  begin  at  the  left  in  division. 

15.  How  find  the  true  remainder  by  dividing  by 
factors  ? 

16.  Define  the  following:  (rt)  Prime  Factor,  (6) 
Composite  number,  (c)  Reciprocal  of  a  number,  {d) 
Cancellation,  (e)  Multiple  of  a  number. 

17.  On  what  principle  may  we  cancel  the  factors  in 
the  operation  of  cancellation  ? 

18.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  G.  C.  D.  and 
L.  C.  M.  of  two  numbers? 

19.  How  does  the  unit  of  a  fraction  differ  from  a 
fractional  unit? 

20.  Define  the  following  terms:  (a)  Fraction,  (5) 
Common  Fraction,  (c)  Proper  Fraction,  {d)  Improper 
Fraction,  (e)  Simple  Fraction. 

21.  {a)  What  is  a  Compound  Fraction?  (6)  What 
does  it  indicate?     (c)  What  is  its  sign? 

■   22.   (a)  Define  a  Complex  Fraction.     (6)  What  does 
it  indicate? 

23.  Give  the  meaning  of  the  following  terms.:  (a) 
Denominator,  (6)  Numerator,  (e)  Terms  of  a  Frac- 
tion, ((Z)  The  value  of  the  Fraction,  (e)  Mixed 
Number. 

24.  What  is  the  Reciprocal  of  a  Fraction? 

25.  Show  how  the  general  principles  of  division 
apply  to  fractions. 

20.  How  is  the  G.  C.  D.  of  fractions  found? 
27.  How  is  the  L.  C.  M.  of  fractions  found? 


QUESTIONS   ON   ARITHMETIC.  35 

28.  Upon  what  principle  does  the  inversion  of  the 
divisor  depend  ? 

29.  In  what  case  may  we  add  two  fractions  by 
writing  the  sum  of  the  denominators  over  their 
product,  in  the  form  of  a  fraction? 

30.  By  what  must  we  multiply  a  fraction,  to  have 
its  numerafoi'  for  the  product  ? 

31.  Are  the  powers  of  a  proper  fraction  greater  or 
less  than  the  fraction  itself  ?    Why  ? 

32.  (a)  Is  there  such  a  thing  as  a  prime  fraction? 
(6)  Can  two  fractions  be  prime  to  each  other?  (c) 
What  kind  of  fraction  must  the  G.  C.  D.  of  two  or 
more  proper  fractions  be?  (cZ)  Can  a  fraction  or 
mixed  number  be  properly  called  a  common  divisor 
of  two  integers?  (e)  What  relation  subsists  between 
the  G.  C.  D.,  L.  C.  M.  and  product  of  two  num- 
bers ? 

33.  What  is  a  Decimal  Fraction,  and  in  how  many 
ways  may  it  be  written  ?     Illustrate. 

34.  Upon  what  does  the  value  of  a  decimal  figure 
depend  ? 

35.  State  the  effect  of  prefixing  or  annexing  ciphers 
to  decimals. 

36.  What  is  the  denominator  of  a  decimal? 

37.  How  does  a  Mixed  Decimal  differ  from  a  Mixed 
Decimal  number? 

38.  Why  does  the  product  of  two  decimals  contain 
as  many  decimal  places  as  both  multiplicand  and 
multiplier? 


36  QUESTIONS    ON    AR1TK]METIC. 

39.  Define  the  following  terms:  (o)  A  Finite  Deci- 
mal, (6)  A  Circulating  Decimal,  (c)  Repetend,  (fZ) 
A  Pure  Circulating  Decimal,  (e)  A  Mixed  Circulating 
Decimal. 

40.  State  the  difference  between  an  Account  and  a 
Bill. 

41.  What  is  the  Metric  System  of  measurement  ? 

42.  What  are  the  principal  units  of  the  Metric 
system  ? 

43.  Name  the  prefixes  employed  with  the  metric 
denominations,  distinguishing  those  used  as  multiples 
from  those  used  as  divisors. 

44.  What  is  a  Measure?     How  established? 

45.  What  is  the  standard  unit  of  value  in  the  United 
States? 

46.  State  the  standard  unit  of  the  following:  (a) 
weight,  [b)  length,  surface  and  volume,  (c)  capacity, 
(d)  angles,  (e)  time. 

47.  Define  the  following  terms:  (a)  A  Line,  (h) 
Surface,  (c)  Angle,  (d)  Square,  (e)  A  Cube. 

48.  (a)  What  is  the  difference  between  a  square 
yard  and  a  yard  square?  (b)  Between  three  square 
yards  and  three  yards  square  ? 

49.  (a)  How  many  cubic  inches  in  a  wine  gallon? 
(6)  Cubic  inches  in  a  bushel?  (c)  How  many  feet  in 
a  mile?  (d)  How  many  square  rods  in  an  acre?  (^) 
What  is  the  value  of  a  Pound  Sterling  in  U.  S. 
Money  ? 

50.  What  is  a  Gunler's  Chain?    Why  so  called? 


QUESTIONS   ON   ARITHIVIETIC.  37 

51.  How  are  the  public  lands  of  the  U.  S.  divided 
and  subdivided  ? 

52.  State  the  number  of  pounds  in  a  bushel  of 
wheat ;  a  bushel  of  corn  ;  a  bushel  of  oats  ;  a  bushel 
of  clover  seed  ;  a  bushel  of  potatoes. 

53.  How  many  pounds  or  ounces  make  a  cubic  foot 
of  water  ? 

54.  For  what  are  the  following  measures  and 
weights  used:  Linear  Measure?  Square  Measure? 
Cubic  Measure?  Liquid  Measure?  Dry  Measure? 
Troy  Weight?  Avoirdupois  Weight?  Apothecaries 
Weight  ?     Circular  Measure  ? 

55.  Compare  the  pound  Troy  with  the  pound  Avoir- 
dupois. 

56.  Which  is  heavier,  a  pound  of  butter  or  a  pound 
of  silver? 

57.  As  regards  quantity,  what  is  the  difference  be- 
tween a  pint  of  chestnuts  and  a  pint  of  claret  ? 

58.  What  are  duodecimals ? 

59.  Define  the  following  terms  :  (a)  Eatio,  (h)  The 
Terms  of  a  Ratio,  (c)  Antecedent  and  Consequent, 
(cZ)  A  Simple  Ratio,  (e)  A  Compound  Ratio. 

60.  What  is  a  Simple  Proportion? 

61.  What  is  Percentage? 

62.  Name  and  define  the  elements  involved  in  per- 
centage. 

63.  Give  short  rules  for  the  five  cases  of  percentage. 

64.  Name  the  Applications  of  Percentage. 

65.  Define  Profit  and  Loss,  Commission,  Consign- 
ment, Consignee,  Consignor,  Net  Proceeds. 


38  QUESTIONS    ON   ARITHIVIETIC. 

66.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  company  and 
a  corporation  ? 

67.  What  is  a  charter? 

68.  Explain  the  terms  at  par,  above  par,  beloiv  par. 

69.  Define  the  following:  (a)  Installment,  (6)  As- 
sessment, (c)  Dividend,  (cZ)  Gross  Earnings,  (e)  Net 
Earnings. 

70.  Name  and  define  the  U.  S.  Securities. 

71.  In  what  kind  of  money  is  the  interest  on  bonds 
payable  ? 

72.  What  is  Insurance  ? 

73.  Name  and  define  the  different  kinds  of  insur- 
ance. 

74.  What  is  a  tax? 

76.  What  are  Duties?     How  many  and  what  kinds? 

76.  What  is  the  meaning  of  Tare?  Leakage? 
Breakage  ? 

77.  Distinguish  between  Simple  and  Compound  In- 
terest ? 

78.  Explain  the  difference  between  true  and  bank 
discount  ? 

79.  What  is  Exchange? 

80.  What  four  parties  may  there  be  to  a  transaction 
in  exchange  ? 

81.  What  is  the  Indorsement  of  a  bill? 

82.  What  is  the  Acceptance  of  a  bill? 

83.  What  is  the  Equation  of  Payments? 

84.  State  the  difference  between  Simple  and  Com- 
pound Partnership. 

85.  What  is  Allio-ation  Medial? 


QUESTIONS    ON   ARITHMETIC.  39 

86.  What  is  Alligation  Alternate? 

87.  What  reason  may  be  given  for  a  higher  rate  of 
interest  being  allowed  in  the  new  States  than  in  the 
old? 

88.  How  much  longer  will  it  take  $100  at  interest 
to  double  itself  at  6  per  cent.,  than  it  will  $50? 

89.  What  is  the  difference  between  Involution  and 
Evolution? 

90.  How  does  the  Square  of  a  number  differ  from 
its  Square  Root? 

91.  What  is  a  Surd?     Illustrate. 

92.  Distinguish  Exponents  from  Indices. 

93.  State  the  difference  between  an  Arithmetical 
Progression  and  a  Geometrical  Progression. 

94.  Name  the  elements  of  an  arithmetical  progres- 
sion, and  write  the  symbol  by  which  each  is  commonly 
designated. 

95.  What  are  the  elements  and  symbols  of  a  geom- 
etrical series  ? 

96.  (a)  How  find  the  area  of  a  triangle  when  the 
base  and  altitude  are  given?  (b)  When  the  three 
sides  are  given  ? 

97.  How  find  the  area  of  a  trapezoid  when  its  par- 
allel sides  and  altitude  are  given  ? 

98.  How  find  the  area  of  a  trapezium,  when  the 
diagonal  and  perpendiculars  are  given  ? 

99.  (a)  How  do  you  find  the  circumference?  (b) 
The  diameter?  (c)  The  area  of  a  circle?  (6^)  The 
lateral  surface  of  a  prism  or  a  cylinder?  (e)  The  con- 
tents of  a  prism  or  a  cylinder? 


40  QUESTIONS   ON  ARITHMETIC. 

.100.  How  is  the  contents  of  a  pyramid  or  a  cone 
found? 

101.  (a)  How  do  you  find  the  surface  of  a  sphere? 
(5)  The  solidity  of  a  sphere? 

102.  What  is  Gauging? 

103.  What  must  be  a  dealer's  asking  and  selling 
prices  of  an  article  costing  $7.20,  in  order  that  he  may 
fall  20  %  from  his  asking  price,  allow  10  %  for  delayed 
payments,  and  still  make  20  %  ? 

104.  If  A.'s  money  is  20  %  more  than  B.'s,  B.'s 
money  is  what  per  cent,  less  than  A.'s? 

105.  Bacon  which  costs  12  cents  a  pound  wastes  15 
%  before  it  is  sold;  at  what  price  per  pound  must  it  be 
sold  to  gain  25  per  cent.  ? 

106.  An  article  lost  10  %  by  wastage,  and  is  sold 
for  30  %  above  cost ;  what  is  the  gain  per  cent.  ? 

107.  Sent  $5,128.05  to  a  broker  in  Cincinnati,  with 
directions  to  purchase  pork  at  $12  V2  per  bbl.,  to  in- 
sure it  for  60  days  at  15  cents  a  $100,  to  pay  storage 
at  5  cents  a  bbl.  for  10  days,  and  to  deduct  his  com- 
mission of  2  %  on  the  money  expended.  How  many 
barrels  of  pork  did  he  buy  ? 

108.  Bought  by  Avoirdupois  weight  10  lbs.  of 
opium  at  45  cents  an  ounce  and  sold  the  same  by  Troy 
weight  at  50  cents  an  ounce ;  how  much  was  gained  or 
lost? 

109.  Sold  wheat  at  21/2  %  commission ;  invested  2/3 
of  its  value  in  coffee  at  IV-i  %  commission;  remitted 
the  balance,  $623.  What  was  the  value  of  the  wheat, 
the  coffee,  and  my  separate  commissions? 


QUESTIONS   ON  ARITHMETIC.  41 

110.  I  wish  to  line  the  carpet  of  a  room  21  feet 
wide  and  24  feet  long  with  canvas  Vs  of  a  yard  wide. 
If  the  lining  shrink  8  %  in  length  and  5  %  in  width,  how 
many  yards  must  I  buy  ? 

111.  Sold  some  hemp  on  a  commission  of  5  %,  in- 
vested the  net  proceeds  in  flour,  commission  2  %  ;  my 
whole  commission  was  $210 ;  what  was  the  value  of  the 
hemp  and  the  flour? 

112.  If  the  relative  value  of  oak  wood  to  spruce  is 
as  3  to  1,  and  that  of  spruce  to  pine  as  7  to  9,  how 
many  cords  composed  of  spruce  and  pine  in  equal 
parts  will  equal  60  cords  of  oak? 

113.  A  citizen  donated  3  acres  of  land,  which  was 
three-eighths  as  wide  as  long  to  a  school  district;  what 
were  its  dimensions  in  feet? 

114.  An  agent  took  a  risk  at  1^/4  %  and  reinsured  Vs 
of  it  at  2V4  %,  and  Vi  of  it  at  IV2  %;  what  rate  of 
insurance  does  he  get  on  the  remainder? 

115.  A  draft  payable  in  30  days  after  sight,  was 
bought  for  $352.62,  exchange  being  IV2  %  discount,  and 
interest  6  %  ;  what  was  its  face  ? 

116.  A.,  B.,  and  C.  are  partners;  A.'s  stock $8,000, 
B.'s  $12,800,  C.'s  $15,200;  A.  and  B.  together  gain 
$1,638  more  than  C. ;  what  is  the  gain  of  each? 

117.  A.  received  of  B.  700  lbs.  of  hides  to  tan  at  6 
cents  per  lb.  tanned,  and  was  to  take  his  pay  in  green 
hides  at  9  cents  per  lb.  A.  returned  to  B.  500  lbs.  of 
tanned  leather,  and  as  there  was  25  %  waste  in  tanning, 
how  many  lbs.  of  raw  hides  must  B.  send  to  A.  to  pay 
him  for  his  trouble  ? 


42  QUESTIOXS    OX   ARITHMETIC. 

118.  The  stocks  of  three  partners,  A.,  B.,  and  C, 
are  $350,  $220,  and  $250,  and  their  gains  $112,  $88, 
and  $220  respectively.  Find  the  time  that  each  man's 
stock  was  in  trade,  B.'s  being  in  two  months  longer 
than  A.'s. 

119.  The  amount  of  my  capital  for  a  certain  time 
at  4  %  is  $360,  and  for  the  same  time  at  7  %  is  $405 ; 
required  the  principal  and  the  time. 

120.  Sold  a  horse  and  carriage  for  $597,  gaining 
25  %  on  the  horse  and  10  %  on  the  carriage.  What  was 
the  cost  of  each,  provided  Vi  of  the  cost  of  the  horse 
equals  V3  of  the  cost  of  the  carriage? 

121.  If  248  men  in  5V2  days  of  11  hours  each 
dig  a  trench  that  is  7  degrees  of  hardness,  232 V2  ft. 
long,  32/3  ft.  wide,  and  2V3  ft.  deep;  in  how  many 
days  of  9  hours  each,  will  24  men  dig  a  trench  that  is 
4  degrees  Of  hardness  337V2  ft.  long,  52/3  ft.  wide, 
and  3V'2  ft.  deep? 

122.  Three-fifths  of  the  cost  of  a  house  increased 
by  Vo  of  the  cost  of  the  farm  for  two  years  at  5  %, 
amounts  to  $4,950.  What  was  the  cost  of  each,  if  % 
of  the  cost  of  the  house  equals  2/7  of  V5  of  the  cost 
of  the  farm  ? 

123.  An  agent  sold  a  quantity  of  coffee  on  a  com- 
mission of  6  %,  and  invested  the  net  proceeds  in  pork 
at  5  %.  His  whole  commission  was  $440  ;  what  was 
the  value  of  the  pork  ? 

124.  A.  and  B.  have  an  annual  income  of  $400 
each.  A.  spends  each  year  $40  more  than  B.  ;  at  the 
end  of  4  years  they  both  together  have  a  sum  equal  to 
the  income  of  either.     What  do  they  spend  annually? 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON   ARITHMETIC.  43 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  ARITHMETIC. 

1.  (a)  Mathematics  is  the  ccience  of  quantity.  (6) 
Arithmetic  is  the  Science  of  numbers  and  the  Art  of 
computation,  (c)  An  integer  is  a  number  composed 
of  whole  or  integral  units,  (d)  A  fraction  is  a  num- 
ber which  expresses  equal  parts  of  a  whole  thing,  (e) 
A  Mathematical  sign  is  a  character  indicating  the  rela- 
tion of  numbers,  or  an  operation  to  be  performed. 

2.  An  Abstract  number  is  one  whose  unit  is  not 
named;  as,  3,  4,  6,  etc.  A  concrete  number  is  one 
whose  unit  is  named ;  as,  4  boys,  3  books,  6  apples. 

3.  A  simple  number  is  either  an  abstract  number  or 
a  concrete  number  of  but  one  denomination  ;  as,  27, 
28  days.  A  Compound  Number  is  a  concrete  number 
expressed  in  two  or  more  denominations  ;  as,  4  days, 
8  hours,  28  minutes. 

4.  (a)  A  Power  is  the  product  arising  from  multi- 
plying a  number  by  itself  one  or  more  times,  (b)  A 
Eoot  is  the  factor  repeated  to  produce  a  power,  (c) 
A  Demonstration  is  a  process  of  reasoning  by  which  a 
truth  or  principle  is  established,  (d)  An  Axiom  is  a 
self-evident  truth,  (e)  Analysis  is  the  process  of  in- 
vestigating principles  and  solving  problems  independ- 
ently of  set  rules. 

5.  Notation  and  Numeration,  Addition,  Subtraction, 
Multiplication,  and  Division. 

O.  Because  in  any  scale  of  numbers  there  are  as 
many  characters  as  are  required  to  make  any  given 


44  ANSW'ERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON   ARITHMETIC. 

number  of  units  equal  one  unit  of  the  next  higher  or- 
der. In  the  Arabic  notation  ten  units  equal  one  unit 
of  the  next  higher  order. 

7.  The  Eoman  and  the  Arabic. 

8.  1st.  Repeating  a  letter  repeats  its  value  ;  as,  XX 
equals  twenty. 

2d.  A  letter  of  any  value  placed  after  one  of  greater 
value  adds  its  value  to  that  of  the  greater ;  as,  XXI 
equals  twenty-one. 

3d.  A  letter  of  any  value  placed  before  one  of 
greater  value  takes  its  value  from  that  of  the  greater; 
as,  IX  equals  nine. 

4th.  A  letter  of  any  value  placed  between  two  of 
greater  value  takes  its  value  from  the  sum  of  the  two 
greater;  as,  XIX  equals  nineteen. 

5th.  A  bar  or  dash  placed  over  a  letter  increases  its 
value  one  thousand  fold ;  as,  V  equals  five  thousand. 

9.  The  simple  value  of  a  figure  is  its  value  when 
standing  alone  or  in  unit's  place.  The  local  value  is 
its  value  arising  from  the  order  in  which  it  stands. 

10.  We  begin  at  the  right  because  we  can  shorten 
the  operation  by  adding  the  terms  of  each  order,  as  we 
reach  it,  the  units  of  that  order  (if  any)  contained  in 
the  sum  of  the  terms  of  the  next  higher  order. 

11.  Because,  since  the  minuend  and  subtrahend  have 
the  same  denomination,  their  difference  expresses  sim- 
ply the  excess  of  like  units  in  the  minuend  above  those 
in  the  subtrahend. 

12.  Because  the  multiplier  shows  how  many  times 
the  multiplicand  is  taken  additively. 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON   ARITHMETIC.  45 

13.  In  short  division  the  several  products  are  sub- 
tracted menially,  and  the  remainder  is  each  time  men^ 
tally  pretixed  to  the  next  figure  of  the  dividend  for  a 
paj-tial  dividend;  in  long  division  tlie  entire  work  is 
written. 

14.  We  begin  at  the  left  in  division  because  the  re- 
mainder in  dividing  any  part  of  the  dividend  must  be 
less  than  the  divisor,  and  it  can  be  divided  only  by  be- 
ing expressed  in  units  of  a  lower  order. 

15.  Multiply  each  remainder,  except  the^?*5^  by  all 
the  divisors  preceding  its  own.  The  sum  of  these 
products  and  the  first  remainder  will  be  the  true  re- 
mainder. 

16.  (a)  A  Prime  Factor  is  one  that  cannot  be 
separated  into  two  or  more  factors.  (5)  A  Com- 
posite number  is  the  product  of  two  or  more  factors, 
each  of  which  is  greater  than  1.  (c)  The  Reciprocal 
of  a  number  is  one  divided  by  that  number.  (tZ)  Can- 
cellation is  a  process  of  shortening  division  by  reject- 
ing equal  factors  from  divisor  and  dividend,  (e)  A 
multiple  of  a  number  is  one  which  is  exactly  divisible 
by  that  number. 

17.  That  dividing  both  divisor  and  dividend  by  the 
same  number  does  not  change  the  value  of  the  quo- 
tient. When  terms  are  cancelled  they  are  divided  by 
the  same  factor. 

18.  The  Greatest  Common  Divisor  of  two  or  more 
numbers  is  the  greatest  number  which  will  exactly  di- 
vide them ;  as,  9  is  the  G.  C.  D.  of  18,  27,  and  3G. 
The  Least  Common  Multiple  of  two  or  more  numbers  is 


46  ANSAVERS    TO    QUESTIONS   ON   ARITHMETIC. 

the  least  number  which  can  be  exactly  divided  by 
each  of  them;  as,  36  is  the  L.  C.  M.  of  9,  12,  and 
18. 

19  The  Unit  of  the  Fraction  is  the  unit  or  thing  di- 
vided; as,  the  unit  of  the  fraction  of  an  apple  is  one 
apple.  A  fractional  unit  is  one  of  the  equal  parts  into 
which  the  unit  is  divided;  as,  one-third  is  the  frac- 
tional unit  of  thirds. 

20.  (rt)  A  Fraction  is  one  or  more  of  the  equal  parts 
of  a  unit.  (6)  A  Common  Fraction  is  one  expressed 
in  figures  by  two  numbers,  one  written  over  the  other 
with  a  line  between  them,  (c)  A  Proper  Fraction  is 
one  whose  numerator  is  less  than  its  denominator.  (cZ) 
An  Improper  fraction  is  one  whose  numerator  is 
equal  to  or  greater  than  its  denominator,  (e)  A  Sim- 
ple Fraction  is  a  fraction  not  united  with  another,  and 
both  of  whose  terms  are  integers. 

21.  («)  A  Compound  Fraction  is  a  fraction  of  a 
fraction;  as,  Vs  of  ^U.  {b)  It  indicates  multiplica- 
tion,    (c)  Its  sign  is  of  ov  X  • 

22.  (a)  A  Complex  Fraction  is  one  having  a  frac- 
tion in  one  or  both  of  its  terms  ;  as  |.     (b)     It  in- 

t 
dicates  division. 

23.  (a)  The  number  of  equal  parts  into  which  the 
unit  is  divided  is  called  the  Denominator,  because  it 
names  the  parts,  (b)  The  number  of  parts  taken  is 
called  the  Numerator,  because  it  numbers  the  parts, 
(c)  The  Terms  of  a  fraction  are  the  numerator  and 
denominator,     (c?)  The   value   of    a    fraction  is  the 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   ARITHMETIC.  47 

quotient  of  the  numerator  divided  by  the  denominator, 
(e)  A  Mixed  Number  is  a  whole  number  and  a  frac- 
tion expressed  together. 

24.  The  Fraction  Inverted. 

25.  1st.  Multiplying  the  numerator  or  dividing  the 
denominator  multiplies  the  fraction. 

2nd.  Dividing  the  numerator  or  multiplying  the 
denominator  divides  the  fraction. 

3rd.  Multiplymg  or  dividing  both  terms  of  a  frac- 
tion by  the  same  number  does  not  alter  its  value. 

26.  Find  the  G.  C.  D,  of  the  numerators  and  the* 
L.  C.  M.  of  the  denominators. 

27.  Find  the  L.  C.  M.  of  the  numerators  and  the 
G.  C.  D.  of  the  denominators. 

28.  Inverting  the  terms  of  the  divisor  and  multi- 
plying the  numerators  for  a  new  numerator  and  mul- 
tiplying the  denominators  for  a  new  denominator,  is 
the  same  as  reducing  the  fractions  to  a  common  de- 
nominator, and  dividing  the  numerator  of  the  dividend 
by  the  numerator  of  the  divisor. 

29.  When  the  numerator  of  each  fraction  is  one. 

30.  By  its  denominator.     Ex.  2/3X8=  2. 

31.  They  are  less.  The  continued  product  of  the 
numerator  by  itself,  divided  by  the  continued  pro- 
duct of  the  denominator  by  itself,  will  give  a  quotient 
less  than  the  numerator  of  the  fraction  divided  by  its 
denominator. 

32.  (a)  No.  (Jj)  No.  (c)  A  proper  fraction. 
{d)  Yes.  (e)  The  product  of  the  G.  C.  D.  and  L. 
C.  M.  equals  the  product  of  the  two  numbers. 


48  ANSWEES   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   ARITHMETIC. 

33.  A  Decimal  Fraction  is  a  fraction  whose  denomi- 
nator is  some  power  of  ten.  It  may  be  written  in 
three  ways:  1st.  Bywords;  as,  two-tenths.  2nd.  By 
writing  the  denominator  under  the  numerator,  as  a 
common  fraction  ;  as,  Vio.  3rd.  By  omitting  the  de- 
nominator and  writing  the  fraction  in  a  decimal  form  ; 
as,  .3. 

34.  The  value  of  a  decimal  figure  depends  upon  the 
place  it  occupies  at  the  right  of  the  decimal  sign. 

35.  Prefixing  a  cipher  to  a  decimal  diminishes  its 
value  1  nfold,  because  it  removes  every  decimal  figure 
one  place  to  the  right.  Annexing  a  cipher  to  a  deci- 
mal does  not  alter  its  value,  because  it  does  not  alter 
the  place  of  any  figure  in  the  decimal. 

36.  The  denominator  of  a  decimal,  when  expressed 
is  the  unit  1,  with  as  many  ciphers  annexed  as  there 
are  places  in  the  decimal. 

37.  A  Mixed  Decimal  is  a  decimal  ending  at  the 
right  with  a  common  fraction;  as,  .6-/3,  A  Mixed 
Decimal  Number  is  an  integer  and  a  decimal  written 
together  as  one  number;  as,  5.8. 

38.  Since  the  denominator  of  the  product  of  two 
fractions  is  the  product  of  their  denominators,  this 
must  contain  as  many  decimal  places  as  the  two  de- 
nominators combined. 

39.  (rt)  A  Finite  Decimal  terminates  with  the  fig- 
ures written;  as,  .25.  (6)  A  circulating  Decimal 
contains  a  figure  or  set  of  figures  repeated  an  unlimited 
number  of  times;  as,  .56731.  (c)  The  repeated  fig- 
ure or  figures  are  called  the  Eepetend.     (d)  A  pure 


ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS   ON  ARITHMETIC.  49 

Circulating  Decimal  is  made  up  wholly  of  a  repetcnd ; 
as,  .154(5.  (e)  A  Mixed  Circulating  Decimal  is  a 
decimal  in  which  the  repetend  is  preceded  by  one  or 
more  figures,  Avhich  form  what  is  called  Uie  finite 
part. 

40.  An  Account  is  a  record  of  items  of  debt  and 
credit  between  parties.  A  Bill  is  a  written  statement 
of  goods  sold  or  delivered,  services  rendered,  with  the 
price,  quantity  and  cost  annexed  to  each  item. 

41.  The  Metric  System  is  a  decimal  system  of 
weights  and  measures,  having  the  meter  for  its  base 
or  unit. 

42.  The  Meier,  Liter,  and  Gram.  To  these  are 
added,  for  square  and  cubic  measures,  the  Ar  and 
Ster. 

43.  The  names  of  the  higher  denominations  are 
formed  by  prefixing  to  the  name  of  the  unit,  the  Greek 
numerals,  Deka,  (10),  Hekto,  (100),  Kilo,  (1,000), 
M^a'ia,  (10,000).  The  lower  denominations  arc 
formed  by  prefixing  to  the  name  of  the  unit  the  Latin 
ordinals,    deci,  (Vio),  centi,  (Vioo),  milli,  (Viooo). 

44.  A  measure  is  a  standard  unit,  established  by 
law  or  custom,  by  which  the  length,  surface,  capacity, 
and  weight  of  things  are  estimated. 

45.  The  American  dollar. 

46.  (a)  Of  weight,  the  Troy  Pound.  (6)  Of 
length ,  the  linear  yard ;  for  ordinary  surface  the  Square 
Yard  ; for  land,  the  Acre;  for  volume  in  general,  the 
Cubic  Yard;  for  wood,  the  Cord,  (c)  The  unit  of 
capacity  is  the  Gallon  for  fluids,  and  the  Bushel  for 


50  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON   ARITHMETIC. 

dry  substances,  {d)  The  unit  of  angles  is  the  Right 
Angle,  or,  practically,  one  degree  of  a  circle,  (e) 
The  unit  of  time  is  the  Day. 

47.  (a)  A  Line  is  that  which  has  length  only,  (b) 
A  surface  is  that  which  has  length  and  breadth  only, 
(c)  An  angle  is  the  opening  between  two  lines  which 
meet  at  a  point.  (cZ)  A  Square  is  a  rectilinear  figure 
which  has  four  equal  sides  and  four  right  angles,  (e) 
A  Cube  is  a  regular  solid  bounded  by  six  equal  squares 
called  its  faces. 

48.  (a)  There  is  no  difference,  {h)  Three  square 
yards  are  three  squares,  each  1  yard  long  and  one  yard 
wide,  each  containing  a  square  yard ;  three  yards 
square  is  a  square  figure  three  yards  long  and  three 
yards  wide,  and  contains  3  times  3  yards,  or  9  square 
yards. 

49.  (a)  231  cu.  inches.  (6)  2150.42  cu.  inches, 
(c)  5280  feet  in  a  mile,  {d)  1(30  sq.  rods  in  an  acre. 
{e)  $4.8665  equal  1  Pound  Sterling. 

50.,  A  Gunters  Chain,  is  4  rods  or  QQ>  feet  long, 
and  contains  100  links.  It  is  so  called  from  the  name 
of  its  inventor. 

51.  The  public  lands  of  the  U.  S.  are  di voided  into 
Townships,  which  are  subdivided  into  Sections,  Half- 
Sections,  Quarter  Sections,  etc. 

52.  The  law  or  custom  of  most  States  is  as  follows: 
wheat,  60  lbs.  ;  corn  in  the  ear,  70  lbs.  ;  oats,  32  lbs.  ; 
clover  seed,  60  lbs.;  potatoes,  60  lbs. 

53.  621/2  lbs.  or  1000  oz.  make  a  cubic  foot  of 
water. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON   ARITHMETIC  51 

64.  Linear  measure  is  used  in  measuring  lines  and 
distances;  Square  Measure,  in  measuring  surfaces; 
Cubic  Measure,  in  measuring  solids  and  volumes; 
Liquid  Measure,  in  measuring  milk,  oil,  wine,  etc. ; 
Dry  Measure,  in  measuring  grain,  fruit,  etc.; 
Troy  Weight  is  used  in  weighing  gold,  silver,  etc.  ; 
Avoirdupois  Weight,  in  weighing  coarse  articles; 
as,  groceries,  hay,  etc.,  and  all  metals  except  gold  and 
silver;  Apothecaries  Weight  is  used  in  mixing  medi- 
cines; Circular  Measure  is  used  in  measuring  angles, 
latitude,  heavenly  bodies,  etc. 

55.  The  pound  Troy  equals  5760  grains,  while  the 
pound  Avoirdupois  equals  7000  grains. 

56.  A  pound  of  butter. 

57.  A  pint  of  chestnuts  is  one-sixth  greater  than  a 
pint  of  claret. 

58.  The  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  a  unit,  result- 
ing from  continually  dividing  by  12. 

69.  (a)  Katio  is  the  relation  of  two  like  numbers 
with  respect  to  comparative  value.  (6)  The  Terms  of 
a  ratio  are  the  two  numbers  compared.  (c)  The 
Antecedent  is  the  first  term ;  the  Consequent  is  the 
second  term,  (d)  A  Sim])le  Ratio  consists  of  a  single 
couplet,  (e)  A  Compound  Ratio  is  the  product  of  two 
or  more  simple  ratios. 

60.  A  Simple  Proportion  is  an  equality  of  two  sim- 
ple ratios,  and  consists  of  four  terms. 

61.  Percentage  is  the  process  of  calculating  by  hun- 
dredths. 


52  ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS   ON   ARITHMETIC. 

62.  1st.  The  Base  is  the  number  on  which  percent- 

age is  computed. 

2d.  The  Eate  is  the  number  of  hundredths  taken. 

3d.  The  Percentage  is  that  part  of  a  number 
which  is  indicated  by  the  rate. 

4th.  The  Amount  is  the  sum  of  the  base  and 
the  percentage. 

5th.  The  Difference  is  the  base  less  the  percen- 
tage. 

63.  1st.  Base  and  rate  given  to  find  the  percentage : 

Multiply  the  base  by  the  rate. 
2d.  Base  and  percentage  given,  to  find  the  rate  : 

Divide  the  percentage  by  the  base. 
3d.  Rate  and  percentage  given,  to  find  the  base: 

Divide  the  percentage  by  the  rate. 
4th.  Base  and  rate  given,  to  find  either  amount 
or  difference : 

Multiply  the  base  by  1  plus  the  rate,  for 
the  amount;  and  by  1  minus  the 
rate  for  the  difference. 
5th.  Amount  or  difference  and  rate  given,  to 
find  the  base  : 

Divide  the  amount  by  1  plus  the  rate; 
and  the  difference  by  1  minus  the 
rate.    * 

64.  Profit  and  Loss,  Commission  and  Brokerage, 
Insurance,  Taxes,  Duties,  Interest,  Discount,  Equa- 
tion of  Payments,  Averaging  Accounts,  Stocks,  and 
Exchange. 


ANS^VET^S    TO    QUESTIONS   ON  ARITHMETIC.  53 

65.  Profit  and  Loss  are  commercial  terms,  used  to 
express  gam  or  loss  in  business.  Commission  is  the 
fee  or  compensation  of  an  agent,  factor,  or  commission 
merchant.  A  Consignment  is  a  quantity  of  goods  sent 
to  one  person  to  be  sold  on  commission  for  another 
person.  The  Consignee  is  a  person  who  receives  goods 
to  sell  for  another.  The  Consignor  is  a  person  who 
sends  goods  to  another  to  be  sold.  The  net  proceeds  of 
a  sale  or  collection  is  the  sum  left,  after  deducting  the 
commission  or  other  charges. 

66.  A  company  is  an  association  of  joersons  for 
carrying  on  some  business.  Companies  may  be  incor- 
porated or  not.  A  corporation  is  a  body  formed  and 
authorized  by  law  to  act  as  a  single  person. 

67.  A  Charter  is  the  legal  act  of  incorporation,  and 
defines  the  powers  and  obligations  of  the  incorporated 
body. 

68.  Stock  is  at  par  when  it  sells  for  its  first  cost,  or 
nominal  value.  It  is  above  par  when  it  sells  for  more 
than  its  nominal  value.  It  is  below  par  when  it  sells 
for  less  than  its  nominal  value. 

69.  («)  An  Installment  is  a  percentage  on  the  par 
value  of  the  capital  stock,  required  of  the  stockholders, 
as  a  payment  on  their  subscription. 

(6)  An  Assessment  is  a  percentage  on  the  par 
value  of  the  capital  stock,  required  of 
stockholders,  to  meet  the  losses  or  the 
business  expenses  of  the  company. 

(c)  A  Dividend  is  a  sum  paid  to  the  stockhold- 
ers from  the  profits  of  the  business. 


54  ANS^YERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    ARITHMETIC. 

(cZ)  Gross  Earnings  are  all  the  moneys  received 
from  the  regular  business  of  the  company. 

(e)  Net  Earnings  are  the  moneys  left  after  pay- 
ing expenses,  losses,  and  the  interest  upon 
the  bonds,  if  there  be  any. 

70.  First,  Bonds,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds; 
viz.,  first,  those  which  are  paj'able  at  a  fixed  date 
known  by  the  rate  of  interest  they  bear  ;  as  U.  S.  6's ; 
and,  second,  those  which  are  payable  at  a  fixed  date, 
but  which  may  be  paid  at  an  earlier  specified  time,  as 
the  Government  may  elect.  These  are  known  and 
quoted  by  a  combination  of  two  dates  ;  as,  U.  S. 
5-20's,  or  a  combination  of  the  rate  of  interest  and  the 
two  dates  ;  as  U.  S.  6's  5-20's;  that  is,  bonds  bearing 
6  %  interest,  which  are  payable  in  20  years,  but  may  be 
paid  in  5  years,  if  the  Government  so  elect. 

Second,  Notes,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds;  viz., 
first,  those  payable  on  demand  without  interest,  known 
in  common  language  as  "Green  Backs;"  and,  sec- 
ond. Notes  payable  at  a  specified  time,  with  interest, 
known  as  Treasury  Notes. 

71.  The  interest  on  bonds  is  payable  in  gold. 

72.  Insurance  is  security  guaranteed  by  one  party 
to  another,  against  loss,  damage,  or  risk. 

73.  Fire  insurance,  against  loss  by  fire.  Marine  in- 
surance, against  the  danger^}  of  navigation.  Accident 
insurance,  against  casualties.  Health  insurance,  pro- 
viding a  weekly  allowance  in  case  of  sickness.  Life 
insurance  provides  a  certain  sum  at  the  death  of  the 
insured,  to  be  paid  to  some  designated  party. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  ARITHMETIC.  55 

74.  A  Tax  is  a  sum  of  money  assessed  on  the  per- 
son or  property  of  an  individual  for  public  purposes. 

75.  Duties  are  taxes  levied  on  imported  goods,  for 
the  support  of  government  and  the  protection  of  home 
industry.  There  are  two  kinds :  Ad  Valorem  Duty 
and  Specific  Duty. 

76.  Tare  is  an  allowance  for  the  weight  of  the  box 
or  other  covering  that  contains  the  goods.  Leakage  is 
an  allowance  on  liquors  imported  in  casks  or  barrels. 
Breakage  is  an  allowance  on  liquors  imported  in  bottles. 

77.  Simple  interest  is  the  sum  paid  for  the  use  of 
the  principal  only.  Compound  interest  is  interest  on 
both  principal  and  interest,  when  the  interest  is  not 
paid  when  due. 

78.  True  discount  on  a  given  sum  is  less  than  bank 
discount,  for  it  is  a  given  rate  per  cent,  on  a  smaller 
sum  than  that  upon  wdiich  bank  discount  is  reckoned. 
True  discount  is  the  difference  between  the  present 
worth  and  the  face  of  the  debt.  True  discount  is 
reckoned  on  the  present  worth,  —  bank  discount  is 
reckoned  on  the  face  of  the  debt. 

79.  Exchange  is  a  method  of  making  payments  at 
a  distance  by  written  orders,  called  bills  of  exchange. 

80.  1st.  The  Drawer  or  Maker,  who- signs  the  bill. 
2nd.  The  Drawee,   to  whom  the   order  is  ad- 
dressed. 

3rd.  The  Payee,  to  whom  the  money  is  ordered 

to  be  paid. 
4th.  The  Buyer  or  Remitter,  who  purchases  the 

bill. 


56  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    ARITHMETIC. 

81.  The  Indorsement  of  a  bill  is  the  loriting  upon 
its  back,  by  which  the  payee  relinquishes  his  title, 
and  transfers  the  payment  to  another. 

82.  The  Acceptance  of  a  bill  is  the  promise  which 
the  drawee  makes  when  the  bill  is  presented  to  him  to 
pay  it  at  maturity.  This  obligation  is  usually  ac- 
knowledged by  writing  the  word  "  Accepted,"  with 
his  signature  across  the  face  of  the  bill. 

83.  The  Equation  of  Payments  is  the  process  of 
finding  an  equitable  time  of  payment  of  several  sums, 
due  at  different  times  without  interest. 

84.  In  Simple  Partnership  the  capital  of  the  several 
partners  is  invested  for  an  equal  time.  In  Compound 
Partnership  the  capital  of  the  several  partners  is  in- 
vested for  an  unequal  time. 

85.  Alligation  Medial  is  the  process  of  finding  the 
average  value  or  quality  of  a  mixture  composed  of 
articles  of  different  value  or  qualities. 

86.  Alligation  Alternate  is  the  process  of  com- 
pounding several  articles  of  different  values  or  quali- 
ties to  form  a  mixture  of  an  average  value  or  quality. 

87.  In  the  new  States  capital  is  less  abundant  than 
in  the  old  States.  Opportunities  for  speculation  being 
more  favorable  in  the  new  than  in  the  old  States, 
money  will  command  a  higher  rate  than  where  enter- 
prises are  less  active. 

88.  No  longer. 

89.  Involution  is  the  jjrocess  of  raising  a  given 
number  to  a  given  power.     Evolution  is  the  process  of 


ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS   ON  ARITHIMETIC.  57 

extracting  the  root  from  a  number  considered    as  a 
power  ;  it  is  the  reverse  of  Involution. 

90.  The  Square  of  a  number  is  its  second  power. 
The  Square  Root  of  a  number  is  one  of  the  two  equal 
factors  that  produce  the  number. 

91.  A  Surd  is  an  indicated  root  that  cannot  be  ex- 
actly obtained ;  as,  \/27 

92.  The  Exponent  of  a  power  is  a  small  figure 
placed  at  the  right  of  a  figure,  to  show  how  many 
times  it  is  to  be  taken  as  a  factor.  The  Index  of  the 
root  is  the  figure  placed  above  the  radical  sign,  to  de- 
note what  root  is  taken. 

93.  An  Arithmetical  Progression  is  a  series  which 
increases  or  decreases  by  a  common  difference.  A  Ge- 
ometrical Progression  is  a  series  of  numbers  which 
increases  or  decreases  by  a  common  ratio, 

94.  The  elements  of  an  arithmetical  progression 
are  five :  the  first  term,  a;  the  last  term,  I;  the  com- 
mon difference^  d;  the  number  of  terms,  n;  and  the 
sum  of  the  terms,  s. 

95.  The  elements  and  symbols  of  a  geometrical 
series  are,  the^rs^  term,  a;  the  last  term,  I ;  the  ratio, 
r;  the  number  of  terms,  n;  and  the  sum  of  the  terms,*. 

96.  (a)  Multiply  the  base  by  half  the  altitude. 
(6)  When  the  three  sides  are  given:  From  half  the 
sum  of  the  three  sides  subtract  each  side  respectively  ; 
then  multiply  half  the  sum  and  the  three  remainders 
together,  and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  product. 

97.  Multiply  half  the  sum  of  the  parallel  sides  by 
the  altitude. 


58  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON   ARITHMETIC. 

98.  Multiply  the  diagonal  by  half  the  sum  of  the 
perpendiculars  to  it  from  the  opposite  angle. 

99.  (a)  The  circumference  =  the  diameter  X  3.1416. 
(b)  The  diameter  =  the  circumference  ^-  3.1416.  (c) 
The  area  of  a  circle  equals  half  the  circumference 
multiplied  by  half  the  diameter,  or  the  circumference 
multiplied  by  one-fourth  of  diameter,  (d)  The  lateral 
surface  of  a  prism  or  cylinder  equals  the  perimeter  of 
the  base  multiplied  by  the  altitude,  (e)  The  contents 
of  a  prism  or  a  cylinder  equals  the  area  of  the  base 
multiplied  by  the  altitude. 

100.  The  contents  of  a  pyramid  or  a  cone  equals 
the  area  of  the  base  multiplied  by  one-third  of  the  al- 
titude. 

101.  («)  The  surface  of  a  sphere  equals  the  circum- 
ference multiplied  by  the  diameter.  (6)  The  solidity 
of  a  sphere  equals  the  surface  multiplied  by  one-i<.ixtli 
of  the  diameter. 

102.  Gauging  is  finding  the  contents  of  casks  and 
other  vessels. 

103.  $7.20  X  1.20  =  $8.64,  Net  price. 

$8.64 -^-    .90  =  $9.60,  Selling  price. 

$9.60  -f-    .80  =  $12,  Asking  price. 

104.  B.'s  =  100  %  :  A.'s  =  120  % :  Difference  20  %  ; 
.20-^1.20=  16|%.  Ans. 

105.  125  %  of  12  cents  =  15  cents  ; 
100  %  _  15  %  =  85  %  ; 

15  cents  -^-  .85  =  yi\\  cents,  Ans. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON   ARITHMETIC.  59 

Or 

12  cents  ^  .85  =  14y\  cents,  cost  of  lib.  after 

wastaoje ; 

14^2^  cents  X  125  %  =  17j}  cents,  Answer. 

106.  100  %  —  10  %  =  90  %,  what  remains; 
130  %  of  90  =  117,  Selling  price  ; 
117  %  —  100  %  =  17  %  gain.     Ans. 

107.  $5128.05  ^  (100  %  +  2  %)  =  $5027.50,  money 

to  be  expended  after  deducting  com. 
15  cents  on  $100  =  1|  cents  on  $12i  ; 
5  cents  storage  +  1|  cents  Ins.  +  $121,  first  cost 

of  pork,  =  $12.56|,  total  cost  of  one  barrel 

of  pork. 
$5027.50  ^  $12,567  =400  bbls.     Ans. 

108.  16  oz.  X  10  =  160  oz.  Av. :  160  oz.  X  .45  = 

$72,  cost  of  opium  ; 
7000  grs.  X  10  =  70000  grs.  in    10  lbs.  Av.  ; 

70000  ^  5760  =  12|i   lbs.  Troy.     12  oz.  X 

12|l-=  145|  oz.  Troy; 
50  cts.  X  145|  =  $72.91|,  Selling  price  ; 
$72.91|  — $72  =  91|  cents,  gain. 

109.  If  %  of  I  =  11  of  I :   I  of  the  value  or  66|  % 

+  2^%  +  l}%  =  70^%:  100— 70^%  =  29| 
%  remitted. 
$623  =  29|  %.  $623  --  .29|  =  $2100,  value  of 
wheat,  I  of  $2100  =  $1400,  expended  for 
coffee.  2}%  of  $2100  ^$52.50  com.  on 
wheat.  1|%  of  $1400  =  $24.50,  com.  on 
coffee. 


60  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   ARITHMETIC. 

110.  21  ft.  =  7  yds.,  24  ft.  =  8  yds., 

100  %  _  5  %  =  95  % ;   7  yds.  -f-  95  %  =  7^^  = 

tV  yds.,  required  width  of  lining; 

100  %  —  8  %  =  92  %  ;    8  yds.  --  92  %  =  8^| 

yds.  =  Yg",  required  length  of  lining. 
tV  X  \'-i  -^  I  =  96^Vt  yt^s-    Ans. 

111.  100%  — 5%  =  95%;     100% +  2%  =  102  %. 
95  %  --  102  %  =  93/-3-  %  ; 

1.00  _.93/y  =.06||  whole  com. :  cost  of  hemp 

as  the  base. 
$210  -4-  .06|i  =  $3060,  value  of  hemp  ; 
95  %  of  |3060=$2907  ;  $2907  -^-  1.02  =  $2850, 

value  of  flour. 


Or 


1.02-;-. 95  =  1.07  j\  I 

1.07y^^  — 1.00=  .073?^,  whole   com.:   cost  of 

flour  as  the  base ; 
$210.00  H-  .0737-  =  $2850,  value  of  flour; 
$2850  X  1.02  =  $2907;  $2907  --  .95  =  $3060, 

value  of  hemp. 
112.  Value  of  1  C.  spruce  =  |  value  1  C.  of  oak, 
"     1    "  pine  =  f         <f      1   *«       i' 
Also  value  of  1  C.  pine  =  ^  of  ^  or  ^  value  1 

C.  oak; 
^  C.  oak  -f-  I  C.  oak  =  If  C.  oak  =  value  1  C. 

spruce  and  1  C.  pine :  |-  of  if  =  2^  C.  oak  = 

value  of  a  cord  composed  of  spruce  and  pine 

in  equal  parts ; 
60  -i-  /-J-  =  157^  cords. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    ARITHMETIC.  61 

113.  3  Acres  =  160  sq.  rods  X  3  =  480  sq.  rd. ; 

A  piece  of  land  |  as  wide  as  long  equals  a 
piece  of  laud  containing  24  small  pieces  ar- 
ranged in  a  rectangular  form  3  parts  wide 
and  8  long.  480  sq.  rd.  ^  24  =  20  sq.  rd. 
in  each  small  square.  272;|-  sq.  ft.  X  20  = 
5445  sq.  ft.  The  square  root  of  5445  sq. 
ft.  =  73.79  +  feet,  which  multiplied  by  3 
and  8  respectively  equals  the  length  and 
width  of  the  3  Acres. 

114.  2^  %  of  I  is  /o  ^0  on  the  entire  risk  ;  li  ^o  of 

:^  is  I  %  on  the  entire  risk  ;  ^-^  %  +  |  %  = 
\%  %  on  the  whole  risk  ;  ^-\r\  =  ^\;  |  o  — 
^9j.  =  1.^  of  the  risk  for  which  he  receives  1| 
%  —  II  %,  or  1^  %  on  the  whole ;  for  ^\,  j\ 
of  3  7  % .  for  the  whole  f ^  of  |i  %  =  llf  % 
Ans. 

115.  $1  —  1.015  =  $.985;  $.985  — $.0055  (the  int. 

of  $1  for  33  days)  =  $.9795,  cost  of  $1; 
$352.62  -^  .9795  =  $360,  Ans. 

116.  $8000  +  $12800  +  $15200  =  $36000,    whole 

stock : 
The  proportional  parts  are.  A.,  |^;B.,  ||; 

fl  = -g^l,  A.'s  and  B.'s  more  than  C.'s; 
$1638  =  1|;  ^\=nn;  II  =  $2340,  A.'s 
gain;  ||.  =  $3744,  B.'s  gain;  ||  =  $4446, 
C.'s  gain. 

117.  Since  A.  returns  500  lbs.  of  tanned  leather  he 

is  entitled  to  6  cents  X  500,  or  $30  worth 


G2  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS   ON   ARITHMETIC. 

of  green  hides.  A  waste  of  25  %  of  700 
lbs.  leaves  525  lbs.  of  tanned  leather,  of 
which  A.  retains  25  lbs.  This  is  equal  to 
33^  lbs.  of  raw  hides,  for  25  --  75  %  =  331. 
$30  -^  9  cents  =  333^,  No.  of  lbs.  green 
hides  to  which  A.  is  entitled  ;  333| —  33^  = 
300  lbs.     Ans. 

118.  A.'s  gain  is  32  %  of  his  stock,  B.'s  gain  is  40 

%  of  his  stock,  C.'s  gain  is  88  %  of  his 
stock.  The  difference  between  40  %  and  32 
%,  or  8  %,  equals  the  difference  between 
A.'s  and  B.'s  time,  or  2  months.  If  8  % 
equals  2  months,  1  %  equals  \  month  ;  32  % 
=  8  month's  A.'s  time;  40  %  =  10  months, 
B.'s  time  ;  88  %  =22  months,  C.'s"  time. 

119.  $405  —  $360  =  $45,  difference  of  amounts  ; 

7  % _4  %  =  3  %,  difference  of  rates. 
$45  -^  3  %  =  $15  interest  at  1  % ; 
$15X4%  =  $  60  interest  at  4  %. 
$360  —  $60  =  $300,  the  principal. 
$60  ^  12,  the  interest  of  $300  for  one  year, 
=5,  the  number  of  years. 

120.  Since    |   the  cost   the  horse  =  |  the  cost  of 

the  carriage,  \  the  cost  of  the  horse  =  f 
the  cost  of  the  carriage  ;  and  |  the  cost  of 
the  horse  =  f  the  cost  of  the  carriage  ;  hence 
the  horse  cost  |  as  much  as  the  carriage. 
25  %,  or  ^  the  cost  of  the  horse,  +  f  =  V , 
S.  P.  of  horse  ;  10  %,  or  ^^  the  cost  of  the 
carriage,  +  |  =  i|,  S.  P.  of  carriage; 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON   AEITITMETrC. 


63 


121. 


1-5 
cost  of  carriage 

horse. 

r  24  men 

9  hours 

7  degrees 

232^  ft.  long 

3|  ft.  wide 

21  ft.  deep 


>^V  =  $597,  ^V=  ^340  =  $270 


I  of  $270  =  $240  cost  of 


5^  days: 


248  men 
11  hours 
4  degrees 
337 Tft.  long 
5§  ft.  wide  { 
31  ft.  deep  3 
Cancelling  and  reducing:   answer  133|-  days. 

122.  The  amount  of  $1  for  2  years  at  5  %  equals 

$1.10; 
Since  110  %  of  I  the  cost  of  house  and  4  the 

cost  of  farm  =  $4950,  100  %  of  f  the  cost 

of  house  and  ^  the  cost  of  farm  :=$4500. 
Since  I  the  cost  of  the  house  =  |  of  |-  the  cost 

of  the  farm,  |  the  cost  of  the  house  =  -^ 

the  cost  of  the  farm. 
$4500  =  ^\  the  cost  of  farm  +  4  cost  of  farm, 

=  If  cost  of  farm  ;  |f  =  $4500,  ^i^.  =  $125, 

11=  $4375,  cost  of  farm. 
Since  |  of  cost  of  house  =  •/-  cost  of  farm,  4 

and 
cost  of  house. 

123.  100  %  — 6  %=- 94%,  proceeds  of   coffee,  or 

105  %  of  pork. 
94  %  -^- 105  %  =  8911  %  of  the  value  of  cofPee, 

which  equals  value  of  the  pork. 
100  %  —  89^ j  %  =  lO^f ,  whole  com.,  which  is 

equal     to"   $440.     $440  h-  lO^f  %  =  $4200, 


j\  of  $4375=  $16G6l 


64  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    OX    ARITHMETIC. 

value  of  coffee.  9-4%  of  $4200 -=  $3948, 
proceeds  of  coffee,  or  105  %  of  the  value  of 
pork;  $3948  -f-  105  %  =  $3760,  value  of 
pork. 
124.  $400  X  4  X  2  =  $3200,  income  of  A.  and  B. 
for  4  years  ;  $3200  —  $400  =  $2800,  amount 
spent  by  A.  and  B.  in  4  years  ;  $2800  — 
$160  (amount  A.  spends  more  than  B.  in 
four  years)  =  $2640,  or  twice  the  amount 
spent  by  B.  ;  $2640  --  2  =  $1320,  amount 
spent  by  B.  in  4  years;  $1320  ^  4  =  $330  ; 
B.'s  annual  expenses.  $330  +  $40  ==  $370, 
A.'s  annual  expenses. 


QUESTIOXS  OX  GRA30IAR. 

1.  "VThat   is  the  difference  between   Grammar  and 
English  Grammar? 

2.  Into  what  parts  is  English  Grammar  divided? 

3.  Define  Etymology,  Syntax,  Prosody. 

4.  TThat  is  the  test   of   correctness   in  the   use  of 
lano^uao:e  ? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  the  terms  Inflection  and  Deri- 
vation of  words  ? 

6.  What  is  lanOTas^e? 

7.  Name  the  parts  of  speech. 

8.  (a)  What  is  a  noun?     (6)  A  pronoun? 

9.  Give  a  complete  classification  of  the  noun  and 
the  pronoun. 

10.  State  the    difference  between  a  proper  and   a 
common  noun. 

11.  What  may  be  used  as  nouns? 

12.  When  does  a  proper  noun  become  common? 

13.  When  does  a  common  noun  become  proper? 

14.  What  does  the  word  substantive  signify? 

15.  Define   the   following:   Class    Nouns,  Abstract 
Nouns,  Collective  Nouns,  Verbal  Nouns. 

5  65 


6G  QUESTIONS    ON    GRAMjNIAR. 

16.  Name  the  properties  or  attributes  of  nouns  and 
pronouns. 

17.  How  are  the  o-enders  distino-uished? 

18.  State  the  application  of  each  gender. 

19.  What  is  personification? 

20.  What  attributes  determine  the  gender  of  certain 
nouns  without  sex  ? 

21.  What  are  the  three  ways  of  distinguishing  the 
masculine  and  feminine  genders? 

22.  When  is  a  collective  noun  of  the  neuter  gender? 

23.  Of  what  gender  are  pronouns  of  the  first  and 
second  person? 

24.  What  should  be  the  gender  of  pronouns  of  the 
third  person,  singular  number  when  referring  to  both 
sexes? 

25.  Name  the  feminine  genders  of  the  following : 
steer,  colt,  earl,  friar,  hart,  sire,  sloven,  stag,  swain, 
don,  infant,  tzar,  John,  youth,  marquis. 

26.  What  is  person  as  applied  to  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns? 

27.  Distinguish  the  person  of  nouns  and  pronouns. 

28.  What  is  the  person  of  the  predicite  nominative? 

29.  What  is  number  as  applied  to  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns ? 

30.  What  are  the  numbers  and  what  does  each  de- 
note? 

31.  State  how  the  plural  of  nouns  ending  in  the 
following  manner  is  formed;  nouns  ending  in  y  pre- 
ceded by  a  consonant,  nouns  ending  inforfe,  nouns 
ending  in  o. 


QUESTIONS   ON   GRAMMAR.  67 

32.  How  is  the  plural  of  letters,  figures,  marlis,  and 
signs  usually  formed  ? 

33.  How  are  compound  words  made  plural? 

34.  How  are  compound  terms  composed  of  a  proper 
noun  and  a  title  pluralized? 

35.  State  the  rule  for  forming  the  plural  of  the 
compounds  of  full. 

36.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  sign  's  ? 

37.  Write  the  plurals  of  the  following:  ottoman, 
alderman,  court-martial,  mouthful,  nebula,  focus, 
hypothesis,  goodness,  trout,  elf,  it,  aid-de-camp,  billet- 
doux,  porte-monnaie,  staff,  Nero,  n.  Dr.,  Mr.  Jones, 
chimney. 

38.  Name  and  define  the  Cases. 

39.  How  may  the  several  cases  be  known? 

40.  How  is  the  possessive  singular  formed?  The 
possessive  plural  ? 

41.  How  is  the  possessive  of  compound  names 
formed  ? 

42.  When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  apposition  with 
another  ? 

43.  In  what  ways  may  a  noun  be  in  the  absolute 
case? 

44.  What  does  the  term  declension  mean? 

45.  Of  what  does  parsing  consist  ? 

46.  Into  what  classes  may  pronouns  be  divided? 

47.  AVhat  is  the  personal  pronoun?  What  two 
kinds? 

48.  What  is  the  antecedent  of  a  pronoun?  What 
may  it  be  ? 


68  QUESTIONS    ON    GRAMMAR. 

49.  In  what  cases  are  compound  personals  used? 

50.  Define  Possessive    Pronouns.     Name  the    pos- 
sessives. 

51.  What  is  a  Relative  Pronoun?     Illustrate. 

52.  State  fully  the  difference  between  a   personal 
and  a  relative  pronoun. 

53.  -What  two  uses  has  the  relative  pronoun? 

54.  («)  When  is  as  a  relative  pronoun?     (6)  When 
is  that  Si  relative?     (c)  When  is  what  a  relative? 

55.  When  is  titat  preferred  to  who  or  which? 

56.  What  is  the  possessive  of  which  and  what? 

57.  Name  the  Interrogative  pronouns. 

58.  (a)  What    is    an   adjective?     (b)    What  two 
classes? 

59.  Into    what    classes    are   descriptive    adjectives 
divided  ? 

60.  Name  the  classes  into  which  limiting  adjectives 
are  divided. 

61.  What  is  a  Participial  Adjective? 

62.  What  is  a  Limiting  Adjective? 

63.  State  the  particular  use  of  the  definite  article. 

64.  For  what  is  the  indefinite  article  used? 

65.  (a)    What  are    Pronominal    Adjectives?     (b) 
Into  what  classes  are  they  divided? 

66.  What  is  the  ofiice  of  Demonstratives?     Name 
them. 

67.  How  are  the  Distributives  used?     Name  them. 

68.  How  are  the  Indefinites  used?     Name  them. 

69.  What   are    Numeral    Adjectives?     Name    the 
cKjses. 


QUESTIONS  ON   GRAaiMAR.  69 

70.  Define  and  illustrate  the  three  classes  of  Nu- 
merals. 

71.  What  is  Comparison?     How  many  degrees? 

72.  When  is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  degree? 

73.  Define  the  comparative  degree.  Tell  how  it  is 
formed. 

74.  Define  the  superlative  degree.  Tell  how  it  is 
formed. 

75.  What  does  the  suffix  ish  signify? 

76.  What  words  signify  a  high  degree  of  quality 
without  implying  comparison  ? 

77.  Give  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees 
of  the  followino:  adjectives:  bad,  little,  far,  fore,  lazy, 
ill,  good-natured,  evil,  old,  late. 

78.  Name  some  adjectives  which  have  no  positive. 

79.  Name  some  adjectives  which  have  no  compara- 
tive. 

80.  Name  some  adjectives  which  have  number. 

81.  What  is  meant  by  descending  comparison  ? 

82.  When  monosyllabic  and  polysyllabic  adjectives 
are  used  in  the  same  sentence,  which  should  precede? 

83.  Correct  and  state  your  reason:  "A  more  hand- 
somer woman." 

84.  (a)  Define  a  verb.'  {h)  How  classified  with 
respect  to  use  ? 

85.  Define  a  copulative  verb.     Illustrate. 

86.  What  is  a  transitive  verb?     Elustrate 

87.  Define  an  intransitive  verb.     Give  an  example. 

88.  What  distinction  may  be  made  between  the 
action  expressed  by  a  transitive  and  an  intransitive 
verb  ? 


70  QUESTIONS   ON  GRAMBIAR. 

89.  How  can  a  transitive  verb  in  the  passive  voice 
be  distinguished  from  an  intransitive  verb  ? 

90.  How  may  the  words  "What"  and  "Whom"  be 
employed  to  determine  whether  a  verb  is  transitive  or 
intransitive  ? 

91.  When  docs  an  intransitive  verb  become  transi- 
tive? 

92.  How  are  verbs  classified  with  respect  to  their 
nature? 

93.  Define  and  illustrate  Active  Verb,  Passive  Verb, 
Neuter  Verb. 

94.  Give  the  classification  of  verbs  according  to 
form. 

95.  What  is  a  Regular  verb?     Illustrate. 

96.  Define  an  Irregular  verb.     Give  an  example. 

97.  What  properties  has  the  verb? 

98.  Define  Voice.     How  divided? 

99.  What  does  the  Active  Voice  represent? 

100.  Define  Passive  voice,  and  state  how  it  is 
formed. 

101.  What  is  Mode? 

102.  How  many  and  what  modes  are  there? 

103.  Define  the  Indicative  mode. 

104.  In  what  class  of  sentences  is  the  indicative 
mode  used? 

105.  (a)  What  is  the  subjunctive  mode?  (fi'iWhy 
so  called? 

106.  What  is  the  potential  mode? 

107.  What  docs  the  imperative  mode  express? 

108.  How  may  the  imperative  usually  be  known? 


QUESTIONS   ON   GRAMMAR.  71 

109.  How  does  the  infinitive  represent  an  action  ? 

110.  After  wliat  words  is  the  sign  ^o  omitted? 

111.  What  relations  may   the   infinitive   sustain  to 
other  parts  of  the  sentence? 

112.  What  are  the  signs  of  the  modes? 

113.  What  is  a  participle?     Why  so  called? 

114.  How  is  the  participle  formed  from  the  verb  ? 

115.  How  many  participles  are  there  ? 

116.  What  does  the  present  participle  denote? 

117.  How    may  the   present  active    participle    be 
used  ? 

118.  What  is  denoted  by  the  perfect  participle? 

119.  In  what  ways  is  the  action  or  state  expressed 
by  a  participle  ? 

120.  In  what  case  is  the  agent  of  an  action  expressed 
by  the  participle?     Illustrate. 

121.  Name  the  auxiliary  verbs,  and  state  for  what 
used. 

122.  What  is  an  impersonal  or  unipersonal  verb? 

123.  Define  tense,  and  name  the  divisions  usually 
recognized  by  grammarians. 

124.  Define  the  present  tense. 

125.  What  is  the  present  perfect  tense? 

126.  Define  the  past  tense. 

127.  Define  the  past  perfect  tense. 

128.  What  is  the  future  tense? 

129.  Define  the  future  perfect  tense. 

130.  How  many  and  what  tenses  in  each  mode? 

131.  How  many  and  what  forms  have  verbs? 

132.  Give  rules  for  the  use  of  shall  and  will. 


72  QUESTIONS   OX   GRA5IMAR. 

133.  Define  the  terms,  relation,  agreement,  govern- 
ment. 

134.  What  is  person  and  number  as  apphed  to 
verbs  ? 

135.  When  should  a  verb  be  in  the  singular? 

136.  In  what  cases  should  a  verb  be  in  the  plural? 

137.  Define  conjugation. 

138.  How  many  and  what  forms  of  conjugation? 

139.  What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb? 

140.  What  is  the  synopsis  of  a  verb? 

141.  How  is  a  verb  conjugated  negatively? 

142.  How  conjugate  a  verb  interrogatively  and  nega- 
tively ? 

143.  What  are  defective  verbs  ?     Illustrate. 

144.  What  are  redundant  verbs?     Give  examples. 

145.  What  is  meant  by  the  term,  "To  make  a 
verb  ?  ' ' 

146.  Give  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs  : 
dive,  say,  drink,  gird,  bear  (to  carry),  cling,  set,  lie 
(to  recline),  shoe,  sit,  eat,  wring,  wear,  strike,  swim, 
lay,  chide,  dare  (to  venture),  fly. 

147.  What  is  an  adverb?     To  what  is  it  equivalent? 

148.  Into  what  classes  are  adverbs  divided? 

149.  What  are  the  modal  adverbs?  Interrogative 
adverbs  ? 

150.  Define  an  adverbial  phrase. 

151.  What  are  conjunctive  adverbs?     Name  five. 

152.  Give  examples  in  which  adverbs  are  used  as 
adjectives. 


QUESTIONS   ON   GRAMMAR.  73 

153.  Classify  the  following  adverbs  :  wholly,  verily, 
asunder,  therefore,  away,  seldom,  almost,  perhaps, 
why,  forth. 

154.  What  is  a  preposition? 

155.  What  is  the  preposition  and  its  object  termed? 

156.  Define  a  complex  preposition.     Illustrate. 

157.  How  is  a  preposition  regarded  whose  object  is 
omitted  ? 

158.  What  distinction  should  be  observed  in  the  use 
of  ' '  with  ' '  and  "  by  ?  " 

159.  What  is  a  conjunction? 

160.  What  part  of  the  sentence  does  the  conjunc- 
tion form  ? 

161.  Are  all  conjunctive  words  conjunctions?  If 
not,  name  exceptions. 

162.  Into  what  classes  are  conjunctives  divided? 

163.  Define  each  class  of  conjunctions,  and  illus- 
trate. 

164.  What  is  an  interjection.  What  meaning  has 
it? 

165.  Give  sentences  illustrating  the  use  of  «s,  first, 
as  a  relative  pronoun;  second,  as  a  correlative  con- 
junction; third,  as  a  complex  preposition,  fourth,  as 
an  adverb. 

166.  Illustrate  by  sentences,  the  use  of  hut  as  an 
adverb,  an  adjective,  a  preposition,  and  a  conjunction. 

167.  Of  what  does  Syntax  treat? 

168.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  proposition 
and  a  sentence  ? 

169.  What  is  a  principal  proposition? 


74  QUESTIONS    ON    GRAIMMAR. 

170.  Define  a  subordinate  proposition. 

171.  What  is  a  phrase  ?     Illustrate. 

172.  Define  the  terms,  element,  analysis,  synthesis. 

173.  What  is  the  subject  of  a  proposition? 

174.  What  is  the  predicate?     The  copula? 

175.  How  are  sentences  classified    with  respect  to 
use? 

176.  Define  a  declarative  sentence. 

177.  What  is  an  interrogative  sentence? 

178.  Explain  the  difference  between  a  direct  and  an 
indirect  question. 

179.  Wliat  is  an  imperative  sentence? 

180.  Define  an  exclamatory  sentence. 

181.  How  are  sentences  classified  with  respect  to 
form? 

182.  What  is  a  simple  sentence?     Illustrate. 

183.  What  is  a  complex  sentence?     Illustrate. 

184.  What  are  clauses? 

185.  Define  a  compound  sentence. 

186.  What  terms  are  applied  to  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound sentence  ? 

187.  How  are  clauses  connected  ?     Members? 

188.  Wiiat  is  a  transitive  sentence? 

189.  Define  an  intransitive  sentence. 

190.  Define  a  mixed  sentence. 

191.  What  is  an  auxiliary  sentence? 

192.  What  may  the  subject  of  a  sentence  be? 

193.  Of  what  may  the  predicate  be  composed? 

194.  What  is  a  modifier? 

195.  What  elements  are  termed  subordinate? 


QUESTIONS   ON   GRAIfflMAR.  75 

196.  Define  an  objective  element.     What  is  it  called  ? 

197.  What  is  an  adjective  element? 

198.  What  parts  of  speech  form  the  adjective  ele- 
ment ? 

199.  Define  an  adverbial  element. 

200.  What  is  an  independent  element? 

201.  Into  what  classes  are  elements  divided? 

202.  Designate  the  classes  of  elements  according  to 
construction. 

203.  How  are  clauses  classified  with  reference  to 
their  use  ? 

204.  What  is  an  abridged  sentence? 

205.  Give  a  comprehensive  rule  for  the  use  of  the 
comma. 

206.  Give  ten  short  rules  for  the  use  of  capital  let- 
ters. 

207.  Correct  the  following,  giving  your  reason: 
"Things  look  much  more  favorably  this  morning." 
"  Washington  was  given  the  command  of  a  division." 
"The  most  tremendous  civil  w^ar  which  history  re- 
cords." "  To  say  he  is  relieved,  is  the  same  as  saying 
he  is  dismissed."     "  We  are  agreed  on  this." 

208.  TMiat  is  a  figure  of  speech? 

209.  Into  what  three  classes  may  Figures  be 
divided? 

210.  Define  the  several  figures  of  speech. 

211.  Name  five  figures  of  orthography  with  exam- 
ples. 

212.  Define  Ellipsis. 

213.  What  is  Enallage  ?     Illustrate. 


76  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   GRAMMAR. 

214.  Write  ten   figures  of   rhetoric,  and   illustrate 
each. 

215.  What  is  versification?     Define  verse. 

216.  What  is  a  poetic  foot? 

217.  Name  the  principal  poetic  feet.     Illustrate. 

218.  State  the  difference  between  rhyme  and  blank 

verse. 

219.  What  is  a  stanza? 

220.  What  is  a  csesural  pause? 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  GRAMMAR. 

1.  Grammar  treats  of  the  science  upon  which  the 
principles  of  languages  are  based.  English  Grammar 
teaches  how  to  speak  and  write  the  English  language 
correctly. 

2.  English  Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts  :  Or- 
thography, Etymology,  S3nitax,  and  Prosody. 

3.  Etj^mology  treats  of  the  classification,  derivation 
and  properties  of  words.  Syntax  treats  of  the  con- 
struction of  sentences.  Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of 
versification. 

4.  The  usage  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers. 

5.  Inflection  of  words  means  the  change  of  form 
which  they  undergo.  The  Derivation  of  words  is 
tracing  them  to  their  original  form  and  moaning. 

6.  Language  is  the  expression  of  ideas  by  means  of 
words. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   GRAMINIAR. 


77 


7.  Noun,  Pronoun,  Adjective,  Verb,  Adverb,  Prep- 
osition, Interjection,  Conjunction.  To  these  are  added 
by  different  authors,  Articles,  Participles,  and  Words 
of  Euphony. 

8.  (a)  A  noun  is  a  name.  (&)  A  pronoun  is  a  word 
used  instead  of  a  noun. 

9. 


PROPER. 
COMMON. 


Class, 

CO 

Abstract, 

H 

Collective, 

H 

Verbal, 

a 

Personal, 

g 

Possessive, 

o 

Relative, 

« 

Interrogative 

.  0-, 

Masculine, 
Feminine, 

Neuter. 

Common. 

First, 

Second, 

Third. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Kominative, 

Possessive, 

Objective. 

Absolute. 

10.  A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  some  particular 
person,  place,  or  thing.  A  common  noun  is  applied  to 
each  individual  of  a  class  of  objects. 

11.  Any  word,  sign,  phrase,  or  sentence  used  inde- 
pendently of  its  meaning  is  a  noun;  as,  "  A  is  an  ar- 
ticle." 

12.  A  proper  noun  becomes  common  when  it  as- 
sumes meaning;  as,  "Bolivar  was  styled  the  Wash- 
ington of  South  America." 

13.  A  common  noun  becomes  proper  when  it  is  used 
to  distinguish  one  individual  from  another  of  the  same 
class  ;  as,  "  The  Park." 

14.  The  word  substantive  includes  everything  used 
as  a  noun. 

13.  Class  nouns  are  names  applied  to  each  individ- 
ual of  a  class  or  group  of  objects.  Abstract  nour.s 
denote  the  quality  of  objects.     Collective  nouns  are 


78  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   GRA3IMAR. 

singular  in  form  but  plural  in  meaning.  Verbal  nouns 
denote  the  names  of  actions  ;  they  are  participles  and 
infinitives,  sometimes  termed  Participial  nouns. 

16.  Person,  gender,  number,  and  case. 

17.  As  masculine,  feminine,  neuter, and  common. 

18.  The  masculine  gender  is  applied  to  males,  the 
feminine  gender,  to  females,  the  neuter  gender,  to 
objects  neither  masculine  nor  feminine,  the  common 
gender,  to  terms  which  may  signify  either  male  or 
female. 

19.  Personification  is  the  application  of  the  mascu- 
line or  feminine  genders  to  objects  without  life. 

20.  Objects  noted  for  size,  power,  and  domineering 
qualities  are  masculine.  Objects  noted  for  beauty, 
amiability,  productiveness,  or  submissive  qualities  are 
feminine. 

21.  First,  by  using  different  words  ;  as  man,  woman. 
Second,  by  using  different  terminations  ;  as  host, 

hostess. 
Third,  by  prefixes  and  suffixes  ;  as,  Mr.  Smith, 
Mrs.  Smith. 

22.  Collective  nouns  conveying  the  idea  of  unity  or 
in  the  plural  form,  are  neuter.  If  they  convey  the 
idea  of  plurality  without  the  plural  form  they  have  the 
gender  of  the  individuals  composing  the  collection. 

23.  They  have  the  common  gender  unless  the  sex  is 
known  from  some  other  word. 

24.  Usage  sanctions  the  use  of  the  mascuhne  forms, 
Jie,  his,  him\  as,  "  Every  scholar  should  be  prompt  in 
his  exercises." 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  GRAMMAR.      79 

25.  The  feminine  of  steer  is  heifer,  of  colt  is 
filly.,  of  earl  is  countess,  of  friar  is  nun,  of  hart  is 
roe,  of  sire  (the  king)  is  madam,  of  sire  (a  horse)  is 
dam,  of  sloven  is  slattern,  of  stag  is  hind,  of  swain  is 
nymph,  of  don  is  donna,  of  infant  is  infanta,  of  tzar  is 
tzarina,  of  John  is  Joanna,  of  youth  is  maiden  or 
damsel,  of  marquis  is  marchioness. 

26.  Person  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
which  distinguishes  the  speaker,  the  person  spoken  to, 
and  the  person  or  object  spoken  of. 

27.  The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker;  the  second 
person,  the  person  addressed ;  the  third  person,  the 
person  or  object  spoken  of.    • 

28.  It  is  in  the  third  person. 

29.  Number  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
with  regard  to  unity  or  plurality. 

30.  The  numbers  are  the  Singular  and  Plural.  The 
singular  denotes  but  one  ;  the  plural  denotes  more  than 
one. 

31.  Nouns  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
change  y  into  ies;  as  glory,  glories.  Most  nouns  end- 
ing in  /  or /e  are  changed  to  ves-  as,  wife,  wives. 
Most  nouns  ending  in  o,  add  es;  as,  cargo,  cargoes; 
nouns  ending  in  o,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  add  s. 

32.  Letters,  figures,  signs,  etc.,  form  their  plurals 
by  adding  's;  as,  the  3  's  and4  's,  a's,  +'5. 

33.  Most  compound  words  are  pluralized  by  having 
the  described  part  made  plural ;  as  ox-carts.  In  some 
compound  words  both  parts  are  plurahzed  ;  as,  men- 
servants. 


80  ANSWEES   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   GRAMMAE. 

34.  They  are  made  plural  by  adding  a  plural  termin- 
ation to  either  the  name  or  the  title,  but  not  to  both; 
OS,  the  Misses  Smith  or  the  Miss  Smiths. 

35 .  The  compounds  of  full  form  the  plural  regu- 
larly; as,  spoonfuls,  hucketfuls. 

36.  The  's  comes  to  us  from  the  ending  es  or  is  in  the 
old  English  genitive  case.  The  apostrophe  indicates  the 
omission  of  e  or  i. 

37.  The  plural  of  ottoman,  is  ottomans;  alderman, 
aldermen;  court-martial,  courts- martial ;  mouthful, 
mouthfiils;  nebula,  nebulae;  focus,  foci;  hypothesis, 
hypotheses;  goodness,  no  regular  form;  trout,  trout; 
elf,  elves;  it,  they ;  aid-de-camp,  aids-de-camp;  portc- 
monnaie,  porte-monnaies ;  billet-doux,  billets-doux; 
staff,  staves,  (sticks)  ;  staffs,  (officers)  ;  Nero,  N'eroes; 
n,  n's;  Dr.,  Drs. ;  Mr.  Jones,  Messrs.  Jones  ;  chimney, 
chimneys. 

38.  There  are  four  cases  :  Nominative,  Possessive, 
Objective,  and  Absolute.  The  Nominative  Case  is  the 
use  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  as  the  subject  or  predicate  of 
a  proposition.  The  Possessive  Case  is  the  use  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun  to  denote  ownership.  The  Objec- 
tive Case  is  the  use  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  as  the 
object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  of  a  preposition.  The 
Absolute  Case  is  the  use  of  a  noun  independent  of 
any  relation. 

39.  The  Nominative  is  the  name  case.  The  Pos- 
sessive denotes  possession.  The  Objective  usually 
follows  a  transitive  verb  or  a  preposition.  The  Abso- 
lute Case  is  used  independently. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    GRAMMAR.  81 

40.  The  possessive  singular  is  formed  by  annexing 
'5  to  the  nominative.  The  possessive  plural  is  formed 
by  annexing  the  apostrophe  only  when  the  nominative 
plural  ends  in  s.  If  the  plural  does  not  end  with  s,  the 
apostrophe  and  s  are  added. 

41.  By  annexing  's  to  the  last  part;  as,  "John 
Smith's  house." 

42.  When  it  denotesthe  same  person  orthing.  It  is 
then  said  to  be  in  the  same  case. 

43.  1st,  By  direct  address.  2nd,  By  exclamation. 
3d,  By  pleonasm  or  specification.  4th,  With  a  parti- 
ciple. 

44.  Declension  of  a  noun  is  its  variation  to  denote 
number  and  case. 

45.  Parsing  consists,  first,  in  naming  the  part  of 
speech  ;  second,  in  stating  its  properties  or  attributes: 
third,  in  naming  its  relation  to  other  words  together 
with  the  rule  for  such  relation. 

46.  Personal,  possessive,  relative,  and  interrogative. 

47.  The  personal  pronoun  both  represents  the  noun 
and  by  its  form  shows  whether  it  is  of  the  first,  second, 
or  third  person.  A  personal  pronoun  may  be  simple 
or  compound.  * 

48.  The  antecedent  is  the  noun  or  substa  itive  ex- 
pression for  which  a  pronoun  stands.  It  may  be  a 
noun,  a  different  pronoun,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause. 

49.  In  the  nominative  and  objective  cases  only. 

50.  A  Possessive  pronoun  is  a  word  which  repre- 
sents both  the  possessor  and  the  thing  possessed  ;  as, 
mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  theirs. 

6 


'*i't  AJSftWtJte   TO   t^UESTlOSg   OJf   GRAMMAJa. 

5L  A  Relative  proitoxin  Teprbheats  Mjme  pr^jceding 
i»oun  or  ecjuivaleirt  expre»%ioii,  called  tl>e  anteeesdent, 
to  which  it  joins  a  Ijiujtjng  clause;  a^,  "The  town 
ktHcA  we  just  passed  isMjltoD/' 

52-  nrst.  Personal  pronoun©  hare  a  peculiar  form 
for  «ui  person  ;  the  relative^  do  not  change  their  form 
for  person-  Second,  a  perjoonaJ  pronoun  maj'  be  the 
eubjeet  of  an  independent  sentence ;  a  relative  is  not 
so  used ;  it  is  found  onJj  in  &      '       '     i.te  clause- 

53.  A  pronominal  and  a  ,  use.  Bj  the 
fir^t  it  represents  a  -  ,e  e^t^^i^i  it  joins  a  modi- 
fying clause  to  the 

54.  A«  ie  a  relative  vinen  it  takes  the  place  of  «cA<;<, 
'ich.kh,  fjT  'tcliot  afXAiT  isuth,  many,  and  *«»»«-,  77*a<  ic 
a  relative  when  tcAo,  whwra,  or  t«j/<ic/<  can  be  subistrtuted 
for  it.  W7ta^  i,  a  relative  when  </*a<  tr/<««7<  can  be 
fcuhirrtituted  for  it. 

5.5.  77ta<  is  preferred  to  '«?:/«>  and  ««:/<i>^/<  when  the 
arjt'boedent  denotes  both  persons  and  things  ;  after  the 
-  .perlative  dhip-'^^ ;  after  '<;t-//c  used  as  an  antecedent, 
arjd  generally  aft^r  r<^,  o-W,  any,  eacA,  every,  mrm, 
>!/jrri^,  fjT  very. 

Tyti,  W}iy:h  and  'or/^a<  having  no  possessive  form  of 
their  own,  sometimes  borrow  wJt/jfse,  the  jx/ssessive  of 

57.  The  InXerrogaihe  pronouns  are  vxVo,  tcAi^A  and 
what. 

58.  ^ct  j  An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  describe  or 
limit  the  meaning  of  a  noun.     C6;  Descri|/tive  and 

limiting  adjectives. 


ANS^NIIRS  TO   QUESTIONS  ON  GRAMMAR.  83 

59.  Into  Common,  Proper,  and  Participial. 

60.  Into  Articles,  Pronominal  Adjectives,  and  Nu- 
meral Adjectives. 

61.  A  Participle  placed  before  the  noun  it  describes, 
as,  "A  warbling  brook." 

62.  A  Limiting  Adjective  limits  or  restricts  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  without  expressing  any  of  its  qual- 
ities. 

63.  The  definite  article  is  used  to  point  out  a  partic- 
ular object  or  group  of  objects  ;  to  distinguish  one 
object  from  another  of  the  same  name;  as,  Ohio,  the 
State,  the  Ohio,  the  river ;  to  point  out  some  well 
known  object;   as,  the  Pleiades. 

6-4.  The  indefinite  article  is  used  to  show  that  no 
particular  one  of  a  class  is  meant.  Its  general  use  is 
to  point  out  a  single  individual  or  a  group ;  as,  a  n  apple, 
a  brace  of  ducks. 

65.  (a)  Pronominal  Adjectives  are  limiting  adjec- 
tives sometimes  used  as  pronouns,  (b)  They  are 
divided  into  three  classes  ;  Demonstratives,  Distribu- 
tives, and  Indefinites. 

66.  The  Demonstratives  point  out  objects  definitely. 
They  are  this,  that,  these,  those,  former,  latter,  both, 
same,  yon,  yonder. 

67.  Distributives  relate  to  objects  taken  separately. 
They  are  each,  every,  either,  neither,  many  a. 

68.  The  Indefinites  relate  to  objects  indefinitely. 
They  are  all,  any,  another,  certain,  divers,  enough, 
few,  little,  many,  much,  no,  none,  one,  oicn,  other^  sev- 
eral, some,  sundry. 


84  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  GRAIVEVIAR. 

69.  Numeral  Adjectives  are  those  which  express 
number  and  order.  The  classes  are  Cardinal,  Ordinal, 
and  Multiplicative. 

70.  Cardinal  Numerals  tell  how  many  ;  as,  one,  two. 
Ordinal  Numerals  tell  the  order ;  as  first,  second. 
Multiplicative  Numerals  tell  how  many  fold  ;  as, 

single,  twofold. 

71.  Comparison  is  a  variation  of  adjectives  express- 
ing different  degrees  of  quality.  There  are  three  de- 
grees of  comparison :  The  Positive,  the  Comparative, 
and  the  Superlative. 

72.  An  adjective  is  in  the  positive  degree  when  it 
expresses  simply  the  quality. 

73.  An  adjective  is  in  the  comparative  degree  when 
it  expresses  a  higher  or  lower  degree  of  quality;  as, 
tall,  taller.  It  is  regularlj^  formed  by  adding  er  or 
more  or  less  to  the  positive  form.  Less  is  added  when 
a  less  degree  of  quality  is  expressed. 

74.  An  adjective  is  in  the  superlative  degree  when 
it  expresses  the  highest  or  lowest  degree  of  qualit}^ ; 
as,  tally  taller,  tallest.  It  is  regularly  formed  by  add- 
ing est,  or  most,  or  least  to  the  positive  form.  Least  is 
added  when  the  smallest  degree  of  quality  is  ex- 
pressed. 

75.  A  small  degree  of  some  quality  ;  as,  saltish. 

76.  Very,  exceedingly,  greatly,  much,  vastly,  etc. 

77.  Bad,  worse,  worst;  little,  less,  least;  far,  far- 
ther or  further,  farthest  or  furthest;  fore,  former, 
foremost;  lazy,  lazier,  laziest;  ill,  worse,  worst; 
good-natured,  better-natured,  best-natured ;  evil,  worse 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS   ON   GRAMMAR.  85 

worst ;  old,  older  or  elder,  oldest  or  eldest ;  late,  later 
or  latter,  latest  or  last. 

78.  Nether,  nethermost ;  under,  undermost ;  hither, 
hithermost. 

79.  Top,  topmost;  head,  headmost;  southern, 
southernmost. 

80.  This  —  these;  that — those;  few  —  many. 

81.  The  expression  of  a  lower  degree  of  quality 
than  is  implied  in  the  positive  ;  as,  rash,  less  rash,  least 
rash. 

82.  The  monosyllabic  adjective  should  precede ;  as, 
"  A  more  proud  and  exalted  mind." 

83.  "  A    handsomer   woman."     Adjectives  should  • 
not  be  doubly  compared. 

84.  («)  A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  action, 
being  or  state.  (6)  Verbs  may  be  classed  as  Copu- 
lative, Transitive,  and  Intransitive. 

85.  A  copulative  verb  asserts  the  predicate  of  the 
subject;  as,  "Gold  is  yellow."  Examples:  see7n,aj)- 
pear,  become,  is  named,  is  elected,  is  made,  is  chosen. 

86.  A  Transitive  verb  has,  or  requires  an  object  to 
complete  its  meaning ;  as,  "  James  cut  the  apple." 

87.  An  Intransitive  verb  neither  has  nor  requires  an 
object  to  complete  its  meaning;  as,  "The  clouds 
darken." 

88.  The  action  expressed  by  a  transitive  verb  has 
reference  to  some  object  upon  which  it  terminates, 
apart  and  distinct  from  the  subject;  the  action  ex- 
pressed by  an  intransitive  verb  affects  the  subject 
only. 


86  ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON    GRAMMAR. 

89.  A  verb  in  the  passive  voice  is  transitive,  if  its 
subject  in  the  passive  voice  o^  be  made  its  object  in 
tlie  active:  as,  <'  The  door  was  shut  by  John  ;"  "  John 
shui  the  door." 

90.  Ask  the  question  What  9  or  Whom?  after  the 
assertion;  if  the  answer  is  a  different  thing  or  person 
from  the  subject,  the  verb  is  transitive,  otherwise  it  is 
intransitive. 

91.  When  the  object  is  like  the  verb  •  as,  "And  he 
dreamed  yet  another  dream." 

92.  Into  Active,  Passive,  and  Neuter. 

93.  An  Active  Verb  represents  the  subject  in  an 
active  state;  as,  "  Boys  j?/ay."  A  Passive  Verb  repre- 
sents the  subject  as  acted  upon ;  as,  "  The  man  was  in- 
jured." A  Neuter  Verb  represents  the  subject  in 
neither  of  these  states ;  it  implies  being  or  condition ; 
as,  "  The  child  sleeps." 

94.  With  respect  to  their  form,  verbs  are  either 
Eegular  or  Irregular. 

95.  A  regular  verb  forms  its  past  indicative  and 
perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present  in- 
dicative, or  simplest  form  of  the  verb ;  as,  hope,  hoped, 
hoped. 

96.  An  irregular  verb  does  not  form  its  past  tense 
and  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present 
indicative;  as,  am,  was,  been. 

97.  Voice,  Mode,  Tense,  Number,  and  Person. 

98.  Voice  is  that  form  of  a  transitive  verb  which 
shows  whether  the  subject  acts  or  is  acted  upon.  Into 
Active  and  Passive  voices!. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON   GRAilMAR.  87 

99.  The  Active  Voice  represents  the  subject  as  act- 
ing upon  some  object;  as,  "  Jolin  saws  wood." 

100.  The  Passive  Voice  represents  the  subject  as 
being  acted  upon ;  as,  "John  was  struck  by  James." 
The  passive  voice  is  formed  by  prefixing  some  form 
of  the  neuter  verb  to  be  to  the  perfect  participle  of  a 
transitive  verb. 

101.  Mode  is  the  manner  in  which  the  action,  being, 
or  state  is  represented. 

102.  Five  modes :  the  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Po- 
tential, Imperative,  and  Infinitive. 

103.  The  Indicative  mode  asserts  a  thing  as  a  fact. 

104.  The  indicative  mode  is  used  in  declarative,  in- 
terrogative, and  exclamatory  sentences  and  subor- 
dinate propositions. 

105.  (a)  The  Subjunctive  mode  asserts  a  thing  as 
doubtful  or  conditional,  (b)  It  is  so  called  because  it 
is  used  only  in  subjoined  or  subordinate  sentences. 

106.  The  Potential  mode  asserts  the  power,  possi- 
bility, liberty,  duty,  obligation,  inclination,  or  neces- 
sity of  doing,  or  being  in  a  certain  state. 

107.  The  Imperative  mode  expresses  a  command, 
an  exhortation,  an  entreaty,  or  a  permission. 

108.  By  the  omission  of  a  subject. 

109.  The  Infinitive  expresses  the  action,  being,  or 
state  without  affirming  it. 

no.  After  the  verbs  bid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  help,  let, 
make,  need,  see,  and  some  others. 

111.  The  Infinitive,  as  an  abstract  noun,  may  be  the 
subject  or  predicate  of  a  sentence ;  may  be  in  apposi- 


88  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    GRAMMAR. 

tion  with  a  noun  ;  and  may  be  the  object  of  a  .transi- 
tive verb  or  a  preposition. 

112.  Indicative  mode:  the  simple  form  of  the  verb; 
Subjunctive  mode:  ^y",  though ^  except,  lest,  unless; 
Potential  mode :  may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would, 
sliould;  Imperative  mode :  let  or  a  command;  Infini- 
tive mode:  to. 

113.  A  Participle  is  a  word  partaking  of  the  proper- 
ties of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  and  a  noun.  It  is  so  called 
because  it  partakes  of  the  properties  of  the  verb  and 
the  adjective. 

114.  The  present  participle,  by  adding  ing ;  the 
past  by  adding  ed  to  all  regular  verbs;  and  the 
perfect,  by  prefixing  to  the  past  the  auxiliary 
"  having." 

115.  There  are  three  participles:  the  present  the 
past  and  the  perfect. 

116.  The  present  participle  denotes  an  action  or 
state  in  progress  at  the  time  represented  by  the  prin- 
cipal verb. 

117.  As  an  adjective,ji  predicate,  and  a  noun. 

118.  The  perfect  participle  denotes  an  action  or 
state  completed  at  the  time  represented  by  the  princi- 
pal verb. 

119.  It  may  be  predicated  or  assumed. 

120.  It  is  in  the  possessive  :  "  I  heard  of  his  going 
home." 

121.  They  are  do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can, 
must.  The^  are  used  in  the  conjugation  of  other 
verbs. 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON   GRAjVUMAR.  89 

122.  An  impersonal  verb  is  one  by  which  an  action 
or  state  is  asserted  independently  of  any  particular 
subject:  as,  "  It  snows ;  "   "It  seems." 

123.  Tense  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  or 
event.  Six  tenses:  the  present,  the  present  perfect, 
the  past,  the  past  perfect,  the  future,  and  the  future 
perfect. 

124.  The  present  tense  denotes  simply  present 
time. 

125.  The  present  perfect  tense  denotes  what  is 
past  and  finished,  but  which  is  connected  with  the 
present. 

126.  The  past  tense  denotes  simply  past  time. 

127.  The  past  perfect  denotes  what  is  passed  and 
finished  before  some  other  event,  which  is  also  past. 

128.  The  future  tense  denotes  simply  future  time. 

129.  The  future  perfect  tense  represents  a  future 
time  prior  to  some  other  future  time. 

130.  The  indicative  has  the  six  tenses;  the  subjunc- 
tive has  three:  the  present,  past  and  past  perfect ;  the 
potential  has  four:  the  present,  present  perfect,  past, 
di^nd  past  perfect ;  the  imperative  has  one ;  th.e present; 
the  infinitive  has  two:  the  present,  and  the  present  per- 
fect. 

131.  Verbs  have  fve  forms:  the  common,  the  em- 
phatic, the  jjrogressive,  the  passive,  and  the  ancient. 

132.  Shall  in  the  first  person,  and  i^'z'ZZin  the  sec- 
ond and  third,  denote  simple  futurity;  as,  "I  shall 
go."  "You  and  he  will  go  with  me."  Shall  in  the 
second  and  third  person  denotes  necessity  ;  as,  "  You 


90  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    GRAMMAR. 

and  he  shall  not  go  till  I  come."  Will  in  the  first  per- 
son denotes  determination;  as,  *'  I  will  prove  my  as- 
sertion." 

133.  Relation  is  the  connection  or  relation  words 
have  with  one  another;  agreement  is  the  similarity 
words  have  with  one  another  in  person,  gender,  num- 
ber, case,  etc. ;  government  is  the  power  one  word  has 
over  another  in  determining  its  relations. 

134.  Person  and  number  of  verbs  are  the  chano-es 

o 

which  they  undergo  to  mark  their  agreement  with  their 
subjects. 

135.  A  verb  should  be  singular  when  its  subject  is 
singular,  when  its  subject  is  a  group  viewed  as  one 
thing,  when  its  subject  is  two  or  more  objects  taken 
singly,  and  denoted  by  several  terms. 

136.  A  verb  should  be  plural  when  its  subject  is 
plural,  when  its  subject  is  a  group  conceived  as  to  its 
individual  parts,  when  it  has  two  or  more  objects 
taken  collectively. 

137.  Conjugation  is  the  correct  expression  in  regu- 
lar order  of  the  modes,  tenses,  voices,  numbers,  and 
persons  of  a  verb. 

138.  Four  forms:  the  regular,  the  emphatic,  the 
progressive  and  the  interrogative. 

139.  The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present 
indicative,  the  past  indicative,  and  the  perfect  parti- 
ciple. 

140.  The  Synopsis  of  a  verb  is  its  variation  in 
form,  through  the  different  modes  and  tenses,  in  a 
single  number  and  person. 


ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS   O^   GRAMMAR.  91 

141.  Place  not  after  it,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary, 
but  before  the  infinitive  or  the  participles. 

142.  Place  the  subject  and  not  after  the  vero,  or  af- 
ter the  first  auxiliary. 

143.  Defective  verbs  are  those  wanting  some  of 
their  principal  parts  ;  as  beware,  ought,  quoth,  wit. 

144.  Redundant  verbs  are  those  having  more  than 
one  form  for  their  past  tense  or  perfect  participle ; 
as,  cleave,  cleft,  clove,  or  clave;  cleft,  cloven,  or 
cleaved. 

145.  To  put  a  verb  into  any  required  form.  Ex. : 
To  name  the  tense,  mode,  form,  voice,  number  and 
person  of  the  verb. 

146.  dive,  —  dived,  dived;  say,  —  said,  said; 
drink,  —  drank,  drunk;  gird,  —  girded  or  girt;  bear, 
—  6o7'e,  borne;  cling,  —  clung,  clung;  set,  —  set,  set; 
lie,  —  lay,  lain;  shoe,  —  shod,  shod;  sit, — sat,  sat; 
eat,  —  ate,  eaten;  wring,  —  wrung,  wrung;  wear, — 
wore,  worn;  strike, — struck,  struck  or  stricken;^ 
swim, — swam,  or  swum,  swum;  lay,  —  laid,  laid; 
chide,  —  chid,  chidden  or  chid;  dare, — durst  or 
dared ,  dared  ;  fly ,  — few ,  floiv  n . 

147.  An  adverb  is  a  word  which  modifies  the  mean- 
ing of  a  verb,  adjective,  participle,  or  an  adverb.  It 
is  equivalent  to  a  phrase  consisting  of  a  preposition 
and  its  object,  limited  by  an  object. 

148.  Five  classes  ;  abverbs  of  time,  place,  cause, 
manner,  and  degree. 

149.  Modal  adverbs  show  the  manner  of  the  asser- 
tion ;  as,  yes,  truly.  Interrogative  adverbs  are  those 
used  iu  asking  questions. 


92  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON    GRAMIMAR. 

150.  An  adverbial  phrase  is  a  combination  used  as  a 
single  adverb. 

151.  Conjunctive  adverbs  are  those  which  connect 
an  adverbial  element  with  the  part  of  the  principal 
proposition  modified.  Ex.  where,  when,  while,  before, 
since. 

152.  "  He  seems  better.''     "  She  looks  well.'' 

153.  Wholly  —  degree  ;  verily  —  modal ;  asunder  — 
manner  ;  therefore  —  cause  ;  away  —  place ;  seldom  — 
time;  almost — degree;  perhaps  —  manner;  why  — 
cause ; .  forth  —  place. 

154.  A  preposition  is  a  word  which  shows  the  rela- 
tion of  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  some  other  word. 

155.  A  phrase;  as,  "  at  home,"  "  in  town." 

156.  A  complex  preposition  consists  of  two  words, 
and  is  parsed  as  a  single  word;  as,  "  as  far,"  *'  from 
among." 

157.  As  an  adverb  ;  as,  "  They  went  out." 

158.  With  denotes  an  instrument;  by  a  cause  ;  with 
the  immediate,  by  the  remote  means. 

159.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words, 
sentences,  and  parts  of  sentences. 

160.  A  pure  conjunction  forms  no  part  of  the 
sentence;  it  unites  the  materials  of  the  sentence. 

161.  They  are  not;  relative  pronouns  and  conjunc- 
tive adverbs  are  exceptions. 

162.  Into  three  classes :  copulative,  disjunctive,  and 
correlative. 

163.  Copulative  conjunctions  join  on  members  de- 
noting  an  addition,  consequence,  cause,  or  supposition ; 
as,  and,  for. 


ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS  ON   GRAJIMAR.  93 

Disjunctive  conjunctions  join  on  members  denoting 
opposition  of  moaning;  as,  buty  except. 

Correlative  conjunctions  are  copulatives  or  disjunc- 
tives, used  in  pairs,  one  referring  or  answering  to  an- 
other ;  as,  .s'o  —  as,  neither  —  nor. 

164.  An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express  some 
sudden  or  strong  emotion.  The  interjection  has  no  defi- 
nite meaning  or  o-rammatical  relation. 

165.  Relative  pronoun:  "This  is  the  same  as  I 
found;"  Correlative  conjunction;  "^s  he  did  to  you, 
so  will  I  do  to  him;"  Complex  preposition:  ^^  As  for 
me,  I  cannot  go;"  Adverb:  "  It  is  as  clear  as  crystal." 

166.  An  adverb  :  "  I  can  but  think  him  gone;"  An 
adjective:  "  There  is  nothing  but  leaves;"  A  preposi- 
tion: <'  They  have  all  gone  but  you  ;"  A  conjunction  : 
"  Age  advances,  but  knowledge  lingers." 

167.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

168.  A  proposition  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words. 
A  sentence  is  the  assemblage  of  words  used  to  express 
the  thought . 

169.  A  principal  proposition  is  one  which  makes 
complete  sense  when  standing  alone. 

170.  A  subordinate  proposition  is  one  which  does 
not  make  complete  sense  when  standing  alone,  but 
must  be  connected  with  another  proposition. 

171.  A  phrase  is  an  assemblage  of  words  forming  a 
single  expression,  but  not  making  complete  sense  :  as, 
in  haste,  since  then. 

172.  An  element  is  one  of  the  component  parts  of  a 
sentence.     Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into 


94  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS   ON   GRAMMAR. 

its  elements.  Synthesis  is  the  construction  of  sentences 
from  words. 

173.  The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  that  of  which 
something  is  affirmed. 

174.  The  predicate  of  a  proposition  is  that  which  is 
affirmed  of  the  subject. 

The  copula  is  a  word  or  group  of  words  used  to  assert 
the  predicate  of  the  subject. 

175.  Declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  and  ex- 
clamatory. 

176.  A  declarative  sentence  affirms  or  denies  some- 
thing. 

177.  An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  which  asks  a 
question. 

178.  A  direct  question  requires  yes  or  no  for  an 
answer. 

An  indirect  question  cannot  be  answered  by  yes  or 
no. 

179.  An  imperative  sentence  expresses  a  command 
or  an  entreaty. 

ISO.  An  exclamatory  sentence  is  used  in  the  ex- 
pression of  emotion. 

181.  With  respect  to  form  sentences  are  simple, 
complex,  and  compound. 

182.  A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  proposi- 
tion: "The  sun  rises  in  the  east." 

183.  A  complex  sentence  contains  one  principal 
proposition,  some  part  of  which  is  modified  by  one  or 
more  subordinate  propositions:  "The  fog  disappears 
when  the  sun  rises.'' 


ANS'WEES   -lO   QUESTIONS    ON   GRAMMAR.  95 

184.  Clauses  are  the  propositions  of  which  complex 
sentences  are  composed. 

185.  A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more 
simple  or  complex  sentences,  joined  by  coordinate  con- 
nectives. 

186.  The  parts  of  a  compound  sentence  are  called 
members. 

187.  The  clauses  of  complex  sentences  are  connected 
by  relative  prpnouns,  conjunctions  and  conjunctive 
adverbs.  The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are 
connected  by  conj mictions, 

188.  A  transitive  sentence  is  one  whose  predicate  is 
a  transitive  verb. 

189.  An  intransitive  sentence  is  one  whose  predicate 
is  an  intransitive  verb. 

190.  A  mixed  sentence  nas  both  a  transitive  verb 
and  an  intransitive  verb  as  predicates. 

191.  An  auxiliary  sentence  is  a  subordinate  propo- 
sition. 

192.  The  subject  may  be  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a 
clause. 

193.  The  predicate  may  be  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a 
clause. 

194.  A  modifier  is  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  joined 
to  a  term  to  limit  or  modify  its  meaning. 

195.  The  subordinate  elements  are  objective,  ad- 
jective, and  adverbial. 

196.  An  objective  element  is  a  word  or  group  of 
words  which  completes   the  meaning  of  a  transitive 


96  ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS   ON"   GRAMMAR. 

verb  in  the  active  voice,  or    of  its  participles.     It  is 
called  the  object. 

197.  An  adjective  element  is  a  word  or  group  of 
words  which  modifies  a  noun,  or  other  expression  used 
as  a  noun. 

198.  The  adjective  element  may  be  an  adjective,  a 
participle,  a  noun  in  apposition,  or  a  possessive. 

199.  An  adverbial  element  is  a  word  or  group  of 
words  used  to  modify  a  verb,  adjective,  participle,  or 
an  adverb. 

200.  An  independent  element  is  a  word  or  expression 
which  has  no  grammatical  connection  with  the  sentence 
in  which  it  may  be  used. 

201.  Elements  maybe  of  the  first  class;  as,  a  word  ; 
of  the  second  class;  as,  a.  phrase;  of  the  third  class ;  as, 
a  clause. 

202.  Simple  elements,  or  those  not  restricted  by  a 
modifier;  complex  elements,  or  those  which  contain  a 
leading  element  restricted  in  meaning  by  one  or  more 
modifiers;  compound  elements,  or  those  consisting  of 
two  or  more  simple  or  complex  elements. 

203.  Clauses  may  be  classed  with  reference  to  their 
use  or  position  in  sentences;  as,  subject  clauses,  predi- 
cate clauses,  relative  clauses,  appositive  clauses,  inter- 
rogative clauses,  objective  clauses,  and  adverbial 
clauses. 

204.  An  abridged  sentence  is  one  whose  predicate 
has  the  infinitive  or  participial  form. 

205.  The  following  terms  should  be  set  off  by  com- 
mas:  1.  Parenthetical  expressions.  —  2.  Intermediate 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS   ON   GEAMMAR.  97 

expressions,  that  is,  such  as  break  the  essential  part  of 
a  sentence.  —  3.  Dependent  clauses.  —  4.  Words  form- 
ing a  series.  —  5.  Words  or  phrases  in  pairs.  —  6. 
Noun  in  apposition.  —  7.  Absolute  case.  —  8.  In- 
verted clauses. 

206.  Capital  letters  should  be  used  in  the  following 
cases:  The  first  word  of  a  sentence,  —  The  first  word 
of  an  example,  —  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation, — 
The  first  Avord  of  a  direct  question,  —  The  first  word 
after  a  period, — The  first  word  after  an  interroga- 
tion,—  Numbered  clauses, —  The  pronoun  I  and  the 
interjection  O, — The  first  word  of  every  line  of 
poetry,  —  Proper  names,  —  Adjectives  derived  from 
proper  names,  —  Names  of  the  Deity. 

207.  "  Things  look  much  move  favorable  this  morn- 
ing." Favorable  modifies  things^  and  should  be  an 
adjective.  "  The  command  of  a  division  was  given  to 
Washington."  The  object  of  the  active  verb,  and  not 
that  of  a  preposition  should  be  made  the  subject  of  the 
passive  verb.  "  The  most  tremendous  civil  war  that 
history  records."  That  should  be  used  in  preference  to 
which  after  the  superlative  degree.  "  To  say  he  is  re- 
lieved, is  the  same  as  to  say  he  is  dismissed."  It  is  im- 
proper to  use  different  forms  of  the  verb  in  the  same 
construction.  *'  We  agree  on  this."  Needless  passive 
forms  should  be  avoided. 

208.  A  figure  of  speech  is  a  deviation  from  the  or- 
dinary form,  regular  construction,  or  literal  significa- 
tion of  words. 

7 


98  ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON   GRAMMAR. 

209.  Into  figures  of  orthography,  syntax,  and  rhet- 
oric. 

210.  A  figure  of  orthography  is  a  deviation  from 
the  ordinary  spelling  or  pronunciation  of  words.  A 
figure  of  sj'ntax  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  con- 
struction or  arrangement  of  words.  A  figure  of 
rhetoric  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  application  of 
words. 

211.  Apheresis;  as,  'gainst,  for  against.  Prosthe- 
sis ;  as,  beloved,  for  loved.  Syncope;  as,  o'er,  for 
over.  Apocope;  as,  yond,  for  yonder.  Syneresis; 
as,  cZon'^,  for  do  not. 

212.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word,  phrase,  or 
clause,  which  must  be  supplied  to  complete  the  mean- 
ing. 

213.  Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  or 
of  one  form  of  a  word  for  another.  Ex.  We,  for  /. 
Metliinks,  for  I  think. 

214.  Simile:  *' He  is  lilce  a  giant:  "  Allegory: 
Bunj^an's  Pilgrims'  Progress;  Metonymy:  ^'Intem- 
perance kills  more  than  the  sicord;  "  Personification: 
*'Joy  gave  him  happiness;  "  Irony:  "  Sure,  Brutus  is 
an  honorable  ^vciVin ;"  Hyperbole:  "Then,  swift  as 
light,  their  swords  flashed;"  Synecdoche:  gold,  for 
money;  Antithesis  :  "  Virtue  ennobles,  vice  debases;  " 
Epigram  *'  Nothing  so  fallacious  as  facts,  except  fig- 
ures; "  Paralipsis :  "  I  will  not  call  him  villain,  forit 
would  be  unparliamentary." 

215.  Versification    is    the  art    of    making    verse. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS   ON   GRAMMAR.  99 

Verse  is  the  musical  arrangement  of  words,  according 
to  some  regular  accent. 

216.  A  poetic  foot  is  a  collection  of  syllables,  one  of 
which  is  accented. 

217.  The  Iambus,  two  syllables,  second  accented, 
enthrall;  the  Trochee,  two  syllables,  first  accented, 
raven;  the  Anapest,  three  syllables,  the  last  accented, 
countersign;  the  Dactyl,  three  syllables,  the  first  ac- 
cented, principal. 

218.  Rhyme  is  a  similarity  of  sound  between  succes- 
sive lines  or  lines  at  regular  intervals.  Blank  verse  is 
verse  without  rhyme. 

219.  A  stanza  is  a  combination  of  lines  constituting 
a  division  of  a  poem. 

220.  A  caesural  pause  is  a  slight  pause  made  in  or 
near  the  middle  of  poetic  lines 


QUESTIONS  OX    GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Define  Geography.     How  divided? 

2.  Define  Mathematical  Geography. 

3.  What  is  Political  Geography? 

4.  Define  Physical  Geography, 

5.  State  three  facts  which  prove  the  lotundity  of 
the  earth. 

6.  What  is  the  generally  accepted  reason,  for  the 
flattening  of  the  earth  at  the  poles  ? 

7.  (a)  Give  the  length  in  miles  of  the  equatorial 
diameter.  (6)  The  polar  diameter,  (c)  The  earth's 
circumference,  (c?)  The  earth's  extent  of  surface, 
(e)  What  proportion  is  water? 

8.  What  revolutions  has  the  earth?  Explain  the 
cause  of  each. 

9.  What  proofs  can  you  give  for  the  earth's  daily 
rotation  ? 

10.  State  the  cause  of  the  change  from  day  to  night. 

11.  Explain  the  cause  of  winter  and  summer. 

12.  What  position  does  the  earth  occupy  in  the  solar 
system  ? 

13.  What  is  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis? 
100 


QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY.  101 

14.  What  is  the  length  of  the  earth's  orbit? 

15.  Into  what  zones  is  the  earth's  surface  divided? 
What  is  the  width  of  each  in  degrees? 

16.  Why  are  the  tropics  and  polar  circles  placed 
just  where  they  are  ? 

17.  What  imaginary  lines  would  be  removed  from 
the  surface  of  the  globe  if  its  axis  were  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  and  what  would  be  the  effect 
upon  the  seasons,  and  on  the  length  of  day  and  night? 

18.  If  the  rotary  motion  of  the  earth  were  to  cease, 
what  change  would  be  made  in  the  distribution  of  wa- 
ter on  the  surface  of  the  earth  ? 

19.  Mention  five  causes  which  produce  oceanic  cur- 
rents. 

20.  Name  four  effects  of  ocean  currents. 

21.  When  are  the  days  and  nights  equal  throughout 
the  globe? 

22.  What  is  the  horizon  ? 

23.  What  is  a  great  circle  of  the  earth?  A  small 
circle?     Give  an  example  of  each. 

24.  What  is  a  meridian  circle?     A  meridian? 

25.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  circle  of  illumina- 
tion? 

->26.  What  is  latitude?     Longitude? 
'  27.  What  is  the  greatest  latitude  a  place  can  have? 
Why  ?     The  greatest  longitude  ?     Why  ? 

28.  (a)  Philadelphia  and  Denver  are  in  the  same 
latitude ;  would  the  parallel  be  the  shortest  distance 
between  them  measured  on  the  earth's  surface?  (5) 
Is  there  any  parallel  which  is  the  shortest  distance  be- 
tween two  points  situated  upon  it? 


102  QUESTIONS   ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

29.  If  tbe  inclination  of  the  earth  were  20  degrees 
from  the  vertical,  what  would  be  the  width  of  each 
zone? 

30.  Name  the  countries  crossed  by  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer.     By  the  equator. 

31.  Give  the  approximate  latitude  of  the  following 
cities:  New  Orleans,  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  Wash- 
ington, Montreal,  Chicago,  New  York,  Havana,  Lon- 
don, Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  Rome,  St.  Petersburg, 
Constantinople,  Rio  Janeiro. 

32.  Where  is  there  neither  latitude  nor  longitude  ? 

33.  How  many  degrees  is  Washington  west  of 
Greenwich  ? 

34.  What  are  the  following:  Island,  Arcl  ipelago, 
Peninsula,  Cape,  Isthmus? 

35.  What  is  a  Mountain ?  Mountain  Range?  Vol- 
cano?    Watershed? 

36.  Why  is  the  climate  of  England  milder  than  that 
of  Labrador? 

37.  Name  and  locate  the  four  most  celebrated  vol- 
canoes. 

38.  Name  the  warm  ocean  currents.  The  cold  cur- 
rents. 

39.  Where,  on  the  21st  of  June  at  the  Arctic  Circle, 
would  you  look  for  sunrise  ? 

40.  Define  the  following :  Cascade,  Confluence, 
Frith  or  Estuary,  Glacier,  Avalanche. 

41.  What  is  the  Ecliptic?  Why  so  called?  What 
is  its  mean  distance  from  the  sun?  What  is  its 
length? 


QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY.  103 

42.  Wheat  is  the  earth's  orbital  velocity? 

43.  Under  what  circumstances  would  summer  and 
winter  be  longer  than  at  present  ? 

44.  Which  has  the  longer  twilight  June  21,  Havana 
or  Quebec?     Explain  why. 

45.  What  is  climate?  Upon  what  conditions  does 
it  depend  ? 

46.  How  does  the  temperature  vary  with  altitude 
and  distance  from  the  equator? 

47.  Why  are  the  western  coasts  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States  warmer  than  the  eastern  coasts  of  Asia 
and  the  United  States? 

48.  Into  what  general  classes  is  mankind  divided? 
Give  an  example  of  each  class. 

49.  What  are  the  political  divisions  of  the  world? 
-  50.  What  is  a  Republic?  Empire?  Kingdom? 
Limited  Monarcliy?  Absolute  Monarchy?  Give  ex- 
amples of  each. 

51.  What   is  a  village?     Town?     City?     A  capital 
of  a  state  or  country  ?     The  Metropolis  ? 
'    52.  What  are  the  chief  industrial  pursuits? 

53.     Distinguish   between  the  two  kinds  of  Com- 
merce.    Between  imports  and  exports. 
^54.  Name  the   four  grades  of    social  condition  of 
mankind. 

55.  Name  the  four  principal  religious  systems. 
^,56.  What  are  the  Equinoxes?     When  do  they  oc- 
cur? 

,    57.  Explain  what  you  mean  by  the  Solstices,  and 
state  when  they  occur. 


104  QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY. 

58.  Name  the  grand  divisions  of  the  earth,  and  af- 
ter each  write  the  name  of  its  principal  mountain  sys- 
tem. 

y    59.  Name  the  eight  largest  islands  in  their  order  of 
size. 

"     60,  Give  in  round  numbers  the  area  of  each  of  the 
grand  divisions. 

61.  Name  and  give  length  of  principal  river  of  each 
grand  division. 

62.  To  what  is  the  term  Antarctic  Ocean  applied  ? 

63.  How  much  more  land  does  the  North  Temperate 
zone  contain  than  the  South  Temperate? 

64.  Name  ten  peninsulas  which  project  in  a  south- 
erly direction. 

65.  How  far  north  have  navigators  explored? 
'^^66.  What  was  the  only  beast  of  burden  possessed 

by  the  aborigines  of  America  ? 

67.  Why  is  the  region  about  the  Antarctic  Circle 
colder  than  that  of  the  Arctic  Circle  ? 

68.  Name  the  ten  largest  gulfs  and  bays  that  wash 
the  coast  of  North  America. 

69.  Name  the  ten  largest  lakes  of  North  America. 

70.  Into  w^hat  four  classes  is  the  surface  of  North 
America  naturally  divided? 

71.  Name  the  political  divisions  of  North  America. 

72.  Name  the  principal  wild  animals  of  North 
America. 

73.  What  is  the  area  of  the  United  States?  Its 
population  ?  Breadth  from  north  to  south  ?  Length 
from  east  to  west  ? 


QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY.  105 

74.  What  races  may  be  found  in  the  United  States  ? 

75.  What  are  caiions?  What  river  is  remarkable 
for  its  numerous  and  deep  canons? 

y  76.  Ii"or  what  are  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  plain 

remarkable? 

"'^7.  What  political  divisions   do   the  United  States 

comprise  ? 

78.  Name  the  ten  largest  cities  of  the  United  States. 

79.  Why  has  the  northeastern  part  of  the  United 
States  been  foremost  in  manufacturing  industries? 

'  80.  Name  five  principal  exports  of  the  United 
States.     Five  principal  imports. 

^!  81.  Locate  and  define  the  following :  Ottawa, 
Yukon,  Hatteras,  Yucatan,  Nicaragua,  Hayti,  Halifax, 
Sitka,  Bathurst,  Bermuda,  Sandusky,  Yankton,  The 
Thousand  Isles,  Mackinaw,  Itasca, 'Tehuantepec,  Gila, 
Height  of  Land,'lKod3'ak,  Fundy. 

82.  Compare  the  New  England  States  with  Cali- 
fornia in  size.     With  Texas. 

83.  If  Texas  were  placed  across  the  United  States 
from  Washington  City  westward,  how  far  would  it 
extend  ? 

84.  State  the  -location  of  the  following  colleges: 
Yale,  Harvard,  Brown  University,  Dartmouth,  Vassar, 
William  and  Mary  College. 

85.  Name  the  States  and  their  capitals  that  border 
on  the  Mississippi  Eiver. 

^  SG.  In  what  two  industries  do  the  Middle  States  ex- 
cel all  others  ? 

87.  What  is  the  government  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia ? 


106  QUESTIOXS    OX    GEOGRAPHY. 

88.  In  what  respect  is  Chesapeake  Bay  remarkable? 

89.  What  three  large  cities  are  in  nearly  the  same 
latitude  as  Philadelphia?  How  do  they  compare  in 
climate?     Give  the  reason  for  your  answer. 

"^  90.  Of  what  benefit  are  sand-bars  and  islands  lying 
off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina? 

91.  Name  the  peculiar  productions  of  North  Caro- 
lina.    How  are  they  obtained  ? 

92.  Give  a  detailed  description  of  Florida. 

93.  How  are  the  lowlands  along  the  Mississippi 
rendered  tillable  ? 

94.  "Whence  comes  the  moss  used  for  cushions  and 
mattresses  ? 

95.  What  is  the  Eed  Eivcr  Raft? 

^  96.  By  whom,  and   for  what  purpose   was    Indian 
Territory  set  apart? 

97.  Compare  the  eastern  tributaries  of  the  Missis- 
sippi with  the  western  in  the  following  respects  :  ( 1 ) 
Rapidity  of  descent.  (2)  Navigable  distance.  (3) 
Extent  of  surface  drained.  (4)  Time  of  subsidence. 
''98.  What  is  the  natural  center  of  population  of 
the  United  States?     Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

99.  Name  ten  productions  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

100.  How  do  steamboats  pass  the  falls  at  Louisville  ? 

101.  For  what  is  Chicago  remarkable?  Name  four 
points. 

102.  Why  is  the  climate  of  Michigan  milder  than 
other  States  in  the  same  latitude? 

103.  How  do  vessels  pass  from  Lake  Superior  to 
Lake  Michigan  ? 


QUESTIONS    ON   GEOGRAPHY.  107 

104.  Why  is  southwestern  Michigan  particularly 
adapted  to  fruit  culture  ? 
'  105.  (a)  Locate  Yellowstone  National  Park,  (b) 
Give  its  area,  (c)  By  whom  and  for  what  set  apart? 
(d)  Name  four  features  which  render  it  a  natural 
wonder,  (e)  What  three  rivers  have  their  source  in 
this  park? 

lOG.  Name  the  capitals  of  tne  ten  territories. 

107.  Why  is  the  Red  River  of  the  North  impor- 
tant ? 

108.  Compare  the  natural  coinmercial  advantages  of 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  States. 

'^^lOO.  What  and  where  are  the  following:  Dry 
Tortugas,  Managua,  The  Panhandle,  The  Eastern  Shore, 
Sandy  Hook? 

110.  What  waters  surround  New  York  City? 
•i^'IH.  Name  the  largest  lake  in  each  grand  division. 

112.  («)  Where  do  navigators  change  their  time? 
(6)  Under  what  circumstances  do  they  add  a  day  and 
drop  a  day  ? 

113.  In  what  city  is  it  6  a.  m.  when  it  is  noon  at 
London? 

114.  On  the  21st  of  June  at  noon  which  way  are  the 
shadows  cast  at  London,  Tunis,  Mecca,  Rio  Janeiro, 
Muscat  ? 

'  115.  Name,  in  order,  the  five  most  populous  powers. 
116.  Name  the  States  which  excel  in  the  following 
productions:  Corn,  Wheat,  Oats,  Potatoes,  Sweet  Po- 
tatoes, Tobacco,  Cotton,  Wool,  Manufacturing  pro- 
ducts, Mining  products. 


108  QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY. 

117.  How  does  the  extent  of  the  raih'oad  system  of 
the  United  States  compare  with  that  of  European 
countries  ? 

118.  Which  is  the  most  densely  populated  country? 

119.  Trace  the  "  International  Date  Line." 

120.  Where  is  the  center  of  population  of  the  United 
States? 

121.  Name  the  States  crossed  by  the  40th  parallel. 

122.  Name  the  waters  upon  which  a  boat  would  ply 
from  Nashville  to  Little  Eock. 

123.  Why  has  Rhode  Island  two  capitals? 

124.  For  what  are  the  following  cities  noted :  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  Annapolis,  Pittsburg,  Paterson,  Indian- 
apolis ? 

'  125.  What  and  where  are  the  following:  Salado, 
Popocatepetl,  Welland,  Elburz,  Batavia,  Ormus,  Brest, 
Finland,  Manilla,  Tenneriffe? 

126.  What  portions  of  icebergs  are  under  water? 

127.  By  whom  is  Greenland  inhabited?  Why 
called  Greenland? 

128.  For  what  is  Iceland  remarkable?  By  whom 
peopled?     What  is  their  language? 

129.  What  is  the  chief  value  of  Alaska? 

130.  Name  the  principal  American  possessions  of 
Great  Britian  ? 

131.  What  provinces  are  embraced  in  the  Dominion 
of  Canada? 

132.  How  is  the  Dominion  of  Canada  governed? 

133.  What  country  furnishes  the  greater  portion  of 
furs  to  the  world?    " 


QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY.  109 

134.  How  do  vessels  pass  from  the  great  lakes  to  the 
ocean  ? 

135.  For  what  is  the  Bay  of  Fundy  noted?  Explain 
the  cause. 

136.  In  what  are  nearly  all  the  people  of  New- 
foundland employed  ? 

137.  Name  the  largest  city  of  the  following  States: 
Vermont,  North  Carolina,  Arkansas,  Oregon,  Nevada. 

138.  (rt)  Which  State  has  the  greatest  number  of 
electoral  votes ?     (6)  Upon  what  does  this  depend? 

139.  (a)  Of  how  many  members  does  the  House  of 
Kepresentatives  consist  (1884)?  (b)  What  is  the  basis 
of  representation? 

140.  Name  the  cities  which  have  been  capitals  of  the 
United  States. 

141.  Why  is  the  passage  from  New  York  to  Liver- 
pool shorter  than  that  from  Liverpool  to  New  York? 

142.  What  and  where  are  the  following :  Tapajos, 
Tchad,  Anticosti,  The  Levant,  The  Three  Rivers,  Pem- 
bina, Atacama,  Heart's  Content,  Otranto,  Severn, 
Taranto? 

143.  What  two  States  have  nearly  the  same  area? 

144.  What  are  the  only  French  possessions  in  North 
America  ? 

145.  How  do  the  United  States  compare  in  size  with 
Brazil? 

146.  Compare  Blinois  with  England  in  size  and 
population. 

147.  What  is  remarkable  about  the  climate  of  Mex- 
ico? 


110  QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

148.  What  kind  of  government  has  Mexico?  Of 
what  composed  ?  Who  are  its  people  ?  What  are  its 
exports  ? 

149.  Of  what  does  Central  America  consist? 

150.  What  gives  Central  America  importance  to  the 
world? 

151.  How  is  the  intense  heat  of  the  West  Indies 
modified? 

152.  Name  five  valuable  exports  of  the  West  Indies. 
Who  are  its  people  ?  What  is  their  number?  Of  how 
many  islands  do  the  West  Indies  consist? 

153.  For  what  is  Havana  noted? 

154.  AVhat  peculiar  navigable  advantages  has  the 
Amazon  ? 

155.  A  vessel  sails  from  Baltimore  to  Maracaybo, 
touching  at  Vera  Cruz,  name  the  waters  upon  which 
she  sails. 

156.  Why  is  South  America  not  well  adapted  for 
commerce  ? 

157.  What  character  of  government  prevails  in 
South  America?  What  is  the  prevailing  religion? 
Population,  number,  and  origin? 

158.  What  is  the  government  of  Brazil  ?  How  does 
the  country  compare  in  population  wath  the  U.  S.? 

159.  What  capital  of  South  America  is  in  the  same 
longitude  as  Washington  ?  How  does  their  time  com- 
pare ? 

160.  Name  the  greatest  mountain  chain  of  South 
America ;  the  highest  mountain ;  the  largest  city ;  the 
largest  gulf. 


QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY.  Ill 

161.  Name  the  countries  of  South  America,  and  after 
each  write  the  name  of  its  capital. 

162.  Caracas  is  in  longitude  Cu°  ^Y.,  St.  Louis  is  in 
90°  15'  W.    How  does  their  time  compare? 

163.  What  are  the  lowlands  of  South  America 
called  in  the  different  river  basins? 

164.  In  what  part  of  the  world  is  the  largest  bird  of 
prey? 

165.  Describe  the  great  plains  of  South  America 
with  reference  to  their  vegetable  and  animal  pro- 
ductions. 

166.  Mention  ten  of  the  most  valuable  productions 
of  South  America. 

167.  Name  five  forest  trees  of  South  America  of 
great  commercial  value. 

168.  What  are  the  five  chief  commercial  cities  of 
South  America? 

169.  Which  is  the  most  enterprising  nation  of  South 
America?     To  what  is  this  due? 

170.  What  language  is  spoken  in  Brazil  ?     Why  ? 

171.  To  whom  do  the  Falkland  Islands  belong  ?  Im- 
portance ? 

172.  What  is  particularly  remarkable  about  the 
Galapagos  Islands? 

173.  What  and  where  are  tne  following:  Chiloe, 
Cuzco,  Frio,  Maracaybo,  Aspinwall,  Cartagena,  Para, 
Rosario,  Guayaquil,  Popayan,  Corrientes,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Tucuman,  Angostura,  Xingu,  Cotopaxi,  Panama, 
Maderia,  Joannes,  Bahia? 


112  QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY. 

174.  Where  is  the  only  part  of  the  world  to  which 
the  cinchona-tree  is  indigenous  ?  What  can  you  say  of 
the  supply? 

175.  What  is  the  only  nation  in  America  without  a 
sea-front  ? 

176.  Which  nations  own  no  islands  except  those 
along  their  coasts  termed  littoral  islands? 

177.  What  is  the  area  and  population  of  Europe? 

178.  How  does  the  coast-line  of  Europe  compare 
with  that  of  the  other  grand  divisions?  What  ad- 
vantages accrue  from  an  extensive  coast  line  ? 

179.  Name  ten  seas  that  wash  the  shores  of  Europe. 

180.  What  forms  of  government  prevail  in  Europe, 
and  how  many  of  each  ? 

181.  Name  the  countries  of  Europe  and  after  each 
write  the  name  of  its  capital. 

182.  Name  the  Eepublics  of  Europe. 

183.  Which  is  the  oldest  Republic  of  the  world? 

184.  Which  countries  of  Europe  have  the  same 
king? 

185.  What  causes  the  great  emigration  from  Europe 
to  America? 

186.  What  striking  features  exist  in  the  political  ge- 
ography of  Europe  ? 

187.  Name  five  gulfs  or  bays  that  wash  the  shores 
of  Europe. 

188.  Compare  the  latitude  of  St.  Petersburg  Avith 
some  prominent  point  in  America. 

189.  Name  in  order  the  ten  largest  cities  of  Europe. 


QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY.  113 

190.  Locate  the  following:  Lipari  Islands,  Lake 
Como,  Palermo,  Elba,  Hamburg. 

191.  Name  the  waters  upon  which  a  vessel  would 
sail  by  the  shortest  route  from  Genoa  to  Trieste. 

192.  What  countries  occupy  the  Great  Low  Plain  of 
Europe  ? 

193.  Name  and  locate  the  foreign  possessions  of 
Great  Britain. 

194.  Compare  the  winter  climate  of  England  and 
South  Carolina,  and  give  a  reason  for  your  answer. 

195.  How  do  the  railroads  of  England  differ  from 
those  of  the  U.  S.? 

196.  Why  is  Birmingham  said  to  be  in  the  Black 
Country  ? 

197.  For  what  are  the  following  cities  noted:  Liv 
erpool,  Manchester,  Leeds,  Nottingham,  Newcastle 
upon-Tyne,  Sheffield, Portsmouth,  Oxford, Cambridge'^ 

198.  What  is  the  length  of  tAvilight  in  northern 
Scotland  at  the  summer  solstice? 

199.  How  many  and  what  telegraph  cables  con^ 
nect  America  with   Europe? 

200.  What  and  where  are  the  following :  Kiev, 
Eiga,  Khodes,  Dwina,  Kiolen,  Cattegat,  Pesth,  Candia, 
Gottenburg,  Dovrefield,  Astrakhan,  Munich,  Crimea, 
Cologne,  Wilna,  Wcner,  The  Naze,  Bucharest,  Dantzic, 
Finland? 

201.  Describe  the  climate  of  Ireland. 

202.  For  what  are  the  following  pities  noted  :  Bel- 
fast, Paris,  Lyons,  Bordeaux,  Glasgow? 


114  QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

203.  Compare  the  climate  about  the  G.  of  Finland 
with  that  of  the  harbor  of  Hammerfest.  Explain  the 
cause. 

204.  What  country  of  Europe  is  the  richest  in  min- 
eral productions? 

205.  What  people  carry  on  nearly  all  the  trade  of 
Austria,  Hungary,  and  Poland? 

206.  What  are  respectively  the  centers  of  the  inland 
and  foreign  trade  of  Austria  ? 

207 .  What  are  the  most  famous  quicksilver  mines  of 
the  world? 

208.  What  is  "  The  Key  to  the  East?  " 

209.  What  is  the  military  importance  of  Gibraltar? 

210.  What  and  where  is  the  "  Alhambra?  " 

211.  Describe  the  location  of  Venice? 

212.  How  does  the  German  Empire  compare  in  area 
and  population  with  Texas  ? 

213.  Name  two  famous  watering  places  of  Europe. 
Locate  them. 

214.  Where  is  amber  found  on  the  surface? 

215.  Which  is  the  best  cultivated  country  of  the 
world  ? 

216.  From  what  country  and  through  what  rivers 
does  water  flow  into  four  great  seas  of  Europe? 

217.  Name  the  characteristics  of  the  Dutch.  Of  the 
Swiss. 

218.  Where  is  the  most  fertile  laud  of  Europe? 

219.  Which  is  the  greatest  o;rain  market  of  the  world  ? 

220.  What  three  nations  control  over  one-third  of 
the  world? 


QUESTIONS   ON    GEOGRAPHY.  115 

221.  Describe  and  locate  the  Steppes  of  Russia. 

222.  In  what  part  of  Europe  are  famous  fairs  held? 

223.  Which  is  farther  from  London,  a  town  2°  west 
or  one  2°  north  of  it?     Explain  your  answer. 

224.  What  and  where  are  the  two  great  shipping 
ports  of  Russia  ? 

225.  What  is  the  religion  of  the  Russians? 

226.  To  what  race  do  the  Russians  belong? 

227.  Where  do  the  following  people  live :  Amphis- 
cians,  Antiscians,  Ascians,  Periecians,  Pericians,  Anti- 
podes ? 

228.  Name  the  waters  upon  which  a  vessel  sails  by 
the  shortest  route  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Odessa. 

229.  What  is  the  width  of  Dover  Strait,  Gibraltar, 
Behring  ? 

230.  From  what  nations  are  the  Italians  derived? 

231.  What  language  is  chiefly  spoken  in  the  follow- 
ing cities  :  Havana,  Constantinople,  Quebec,  Rio  Ja- 
neiro, Berne? 

232.  Where  are  the  Valdai  Hills  ?     The  Matterhorn  ? 

233.  What  is  a  Mercator  Mao  ?  By  whom  invented  ? 
For  what  purpose? 

234.  State  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  Mer- 
cator's  Map. 

235.  State  the  principal  points  of  resemblance  and 
difference  between  («)  the  British  Parliament  and 
the  Congress  of  the  U.  S. ;  (6)  between  the  Executive 
powers  of  the  two  countries. 

236.  What  country  in  the  world  has  the  longest  and 
most  numerous  lines  of  railroad? 


116  QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

237.  Name  five  principal  mountain  systems  of  Asia. 

238.  Name  in  order  the  five  longest  rivers  of  Asia. 

239.  What  are  the  political  divisions  of  Asia? 

240.  Name  the  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays  which  surround 
Asia,  beOTnnins  at  the  N.  W. 

241.  Locate  the  following  cities  of  Asia  :  Tobolsk, 
Kclat,  Tomsk,  Madras,  Hong  Kong,  Irkoutsk,  Tokio, 
Aden,  Colombo,  Khiva,  Lassa,  Bankok,  Lucknow, 
Cabul,  Teheran,  Smyrna,  Tientsin,  Kashgar,  Surat, 
Mecca,  Shanghai,  Medina,  Cashmere,  Hue,  Omsk, 
Mandalay,  Ozaka,  Aleppo,  Tiflis,  Nankin,  Damascus, 
Ispahan,  Mocha,  Bey  root,  Fuh  Chau. 

242.  Name  the  two  principal  forms  of  religion  of 
Asia  and  state  their  distinctive  features. 

243.  What  do  the  suffixes  stem,  chow,  ho  and  kiang 
added  to  Asiatic  names  signify  ? 

244.  What  is  the  character  of  the  surface  of 
Siberia  ? 

245.  Has  a  passage  along  the  northern  coast  of 
Europe  and  Asia  ever  been  made  ? 

246.  Where  and  from  what  is  ivory  obtained  in  Si- 
beria ? 

247.  What  are  the  principal  exports  of  Asiatic 
Turkey? 

248.  How  do  most  of  the  tribes  of  Arabia,  Turke- 
stan, Tibet,  etc.,  live? 

249.  What  are  the  estimated  area  and  i)opulation  of 
China? 

250.  Name  and  describe  some  of  the  most  famous 
public  works  of  China. 


QUESTIONS    ON   GEOGRAPHY.  117 

251.  Is  the  production  of  tea  limited  to  China?  i.e.^ 
Can  it  be  cultivated  elsewhere?     Explain  fully. 

252.  Enumerate  the  uses  of  the  bamboo.' 

253.  How  do  you  account  for  the  non-progressive 
spirit  of  the  Chinese  and  at  the  same  time  for  their  in- 
genuity ? 

254.  Where  is  the  largest  known  collection  of  in- 
habitants ? 

255.  Name  the  four  large  islands  of  Japan?  How 
many  smaller  ones  ? 

256.  What  are  the  principal  articles  of  commerce 
obtained  from  Arabia  ? 

257.  From  what  and  how  is  Gutta-Percha  obtained? 

258.  What  is  sago?     How  obtained? 

259.  Name  the  Treaty,  or  Free  ports,  of  Japan 
open  to  the  U.  S. 

260.  What  valuable  woods  are  found  in  Siam  ? 

261.  Name  ten  exports  of  Hindoostan.  Where  pro- 
duced ? 

262.  From  what  is  opium  made?  To  what  extent 
is  it  used  in  China? 

263.  How  does  the  quality  and  flavor  of  such  fruits 
as  grapes,  pears,  peaches,  watermelons,  etc.,  grown  in 
dry  countries  compare  with  the  same  when  grown  in 
moist  countries? 

264.  For  what  purpose  is  Siberia  used  by  Russia? 

265.  Where  do  the  "  Fire  Worshippers  "  live? 

266.  What  and  where  are  the  Tundras? 

267.  What  and  where  are  the  following:  Tulare, 
Zealand,  Agulhas,  Chincha,  Land's  End? 


118  QUESTIONS   ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

268.  Enumerate  five  causes  for  our  limited  knowl- 
edge of  Africa. 

269.  Locate  and  define  the  following:  Nubia, 
Sofala,  Zululand,  Algeria,  Victoria  Nyanza,  Tunis, 
Monrovia,  Port  Said,  Zambesi,  Orange,  Natal,  Tchad 
Canary,  Tananarivo,  Dahomey,  Comoro,  Zanzibar, 
Congo,  Alexandria,  Oran. 

270    Name  the  political  divisions  of  Africa. 

271.  Which  are  the  Barbary  States?  Their  chief 
products  ? 

272.  To  what  race  do  the  Egyptians  belong?  What 
is  their  language?  Their  ruling  class?  Prevailing  re- 
ligion? 

273.  How  does  the  temperature  of  the  Sahara  by 
day  compare  with  the  temperature  at  night? 

274.  What  and  where  is  Liberia? 

275.  Describe  the  Suez  Canal.  Who  constructed 
it? 

276.  What  does  Oceanica  comprise  ?  What  is  its  ex- 
tent? 

277.  Contrast  Australia  and  the  United  States  in 
respect  to  area,  climate,  seasons,  vegetation,  animals. 

278.  Describe  the  natives  of  Australia. 

279.  Three  persons  separate  in  St.  Louis,  January 
1,  1883.  A  starts  eastward  to  go  round  the  world; 
B  journeys  west,  also  to  go  round  the  world,  and  C 
remains  in  St.  Louis.  On  the  evening  of  December  31. 
1883,  they  meet  again  in  St.  Louis,  A  and  B  having 
just  completed  the  circuit  of  the  world.  How  many 
days  has  each  seen  in  the  year? 


ANSWEr.8    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY.  119 

280.  A  vessel  goes  from  Chicago  to  Shanghai  by 
way  of  the  Suez  Canal ;  name  the  waters  upon  which 
she  sails. 

281.  (a)  Explain  what  is  meant  by  "standard 
time."  (/;)  By  whom  and  when  adopted?  (c)  How 
many  and  what  divisions  of  time  in  the  United  States? 

282.  Name  three  important  cities  of  the  IViississippi 
Valley  having  nearly  the  same  standard  and  local  time. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Geography  is  a  description  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, its  countries  and  their  inhabitants.  It  is  treated 
under  three  divisions:  Mathematical,  Political  and 
Physical  Geography. 

2.  Mathematical  Geography  treats  of  the  form, 
size  and  motions  of  the  earth,  and  its  relations  to  other 
heavenly  bodies. 

3.  Political  Geography  treats  of  the  divisions 
formed  by  man  for  the  purpose  of  government,  the 
people,  religion,  customs,  and  government. 

4.  Physical  Geography  treats  of  the  natural  divi- 
sions of  land  and  water,  climate,  productions,  and  their 
effects  upon  the  animal  creation. 

5.  1st.  Ships  have  sailed  around  it.  2d.  The  hull 
of  an  outgoing  vessel  is  the  first  to  disappear  from 
sight.  3d.  The  shadow  which  the  earth  casts  upon 
the  moon  during  an  eclipse  is  circular. 


120  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

6.  Its  revolution  during  its  plastic  state. 

7.  (a)  7,925V2  miles,  (b)  7,899  miles,  (c)  24,- 
899  miles.  (J)  196,900,278  square  miles,  (e)  About 
three-fourths. 

8.  Two :  A  daily  and  a  yearly.  The  daily  is 
caused  by  the  earth's  turning  on  its  axis.  The  yearly, 
by  the  earth's  revolution  around  the  sun. 

9.  1st.  The  flattening  of  the  earth  at  the  poles. 
2d.  If  a  number  of  balls  be  let  fall  from  the  summit  of 
a  high  tower  they  will  fall  eastward  of  a  vertical  line. 
The  top  of  the  tower  being  farther  from  the  center  of 
the  earth  than  its  base,  has  a  o-reater  centrifu2:al  force 
than  the  base,  and  hence,  tends  to  throw  the  balls  east- 
ward. 3d.  The  diminished  weight  of  bodies  at  the 
equator  is  partly  due  to  the  centrifugal  force  caused 
by  the  earth's  rotation.  4th.  Since  all  the  heavenly 
bodies  turn  upon  their  axes,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
the  Earth  is  no  exception. 

10.  The  daily  revolution,  presenting  one-half  of  the 
earth's  surface  to  the  sun. 

11.  During  the  winter  season  north  of  the  equator 
the  rays  of  the  sun  fall  obhquely  upon  that  portion  of 
the  earth  ;  during  the  northern  summer  the  sun's  rays 
fall  more  nearly  vertical,  and  thus  concentrate  the 
heat. 

12.  It  is  the  third  from  the  sun. 

13.  It  leans  23V2  degrees  from  the  perpendicular. 

14.  577,000,000  miles. 

15.  Into  one  torrid,  two  temperate,  and  two  frigid 
zones.     The  torrid  is  47  degrees  in  width,  the  temper- 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON   GEOGRAPHY.  121 

ate  zones  are  each  43  degrees  wide,  and  the  frigid  zones 
are  23Vo  degrees  respectively. 

16.  The  tropics  mark  the  limit  of  the  sun's  vertical 
rays  north  and  south  of  the  equator.  The  polar  circles 
mark  the  limit  of  the  sun's  oblique  rays.  Ex.  On 
the  21st  of  June,  when  the  sun's  rays  are  verticals 
the  Tropic  of-  Cancer,  the  extreme  southern  limit  of 
the  sun's  oblique  rays  is  marked  by  the  antarctic  cir- 
cle. 

17.  The  tropics  ana  polar  circles  would  be  removed. 
There  would  be  no  change  of  seasons.  The  days  and 
nights  would  be  equal  throughout  the  globe. 

18.  The  waters  of  the  ocean  would  settle  about  the 
poles. 

19.  1st.  The  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  2d. 
Difference  in  the  densities  of  the  waters  of  the  polar 
and  tropic  seas.  3d.  Immense  evaporation  in  the 
equatorial  regions.  4th.  Winds  and  tides.  5th.  The 
melting  of  polar  ice  and  snow. 

20.  1st.  Modification  of  the  extremes  of  climate. 
2d.  Advantage  to  commerce  by  shortening  the  time  of 
ocean  navigation.  3d.  Distribution  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life.  4th.  They  render  the  globe  healthful 
by  carrying  off  decaying  vegetable  and  animal  matter. 

21.  On  the  21st  of  March  and  the  22d  of  Septem- 
ber, on  which  days  the  sun's  rays  are  vertical  on  the 
equator. 

22.  The  horizon  is  that  circle  upon  which  the  earth 
and  sky  appear  to  meet. 


122  ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON   GEOGRAPHY. 

23.  A  great  circle  is  one  which  divides  the  earth  into 
two  equal  parts.  Ex.  The  equator.  A  small  circle  is 
one  that  divides  the  earth  into  two  unequal  parts.  Ex. 
The  tropics  and  polar  circles. 

24.  A  meridian  circle  passes  through  the  poles.  A 
meridian  is  half  a  meridian  circle  and  extends  from 
pole  to  pole. 

25.  The  circle  of  illumination  separates  the  dark 
side  of  the  earth  from  the  light. 

26.  Latitude  is  distance  north  and  south  of  the 
equator  towards  the  poles.  Longitude  is  distance  east 
and  west  of  some  given  meridian,  measured  on  paral- 
lels in  degrees. 

27.  90  degrees  north  or  south,  because  latitude  does 
not  extend  beyond  the  poles.  The  greatest  longitude 
cannot  be  more  than  180  degrees  east  or  west,  because 
longitude  is  reckoned  both  ways  from  a  given  meridian 
to  the  other  half  of  a  meridian  forming  with  the  start- 
ing point  a  meridian  circle. 

28.  (a)  It  would  not.     (b)  Yes,  the  equator. 

29.  The  torrid  zone  would  extend  20  degrees  each 
side  of  the  equator,  and  would  be  40  degrees  wide. 
The  frigid  zones  would  each  be  20  degrees,  while  the 
temperate  zones  would  be  50  degrees  wide. 

30.  The  Tropic  of  Cancer  crosses  Mexico,  Sahara, 
Nubia,  Turkey,  Arabia,  Hindostan,  Birmah,  and 
China.  The  equator  crosses  Ecuador,  U.  S.  of  Co- 
lombia, Brazil,  Lower  Guinea,  Ethiopia,  Zanguebar, 
Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  the  Celebes. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON    GEOGRAPHY.  123 

31.  New  Orleans,  30';  Philadelphia,  40°;  St. 
Louis,  381/2°;  Washington,  39";  Montreal,  4(5°;  Chi- 
cago, 42°;  New  York,  41°;  Havana,  23°;  London, 
511/2°;  Paris,  49°;  Berlin,  52V-2°;  Vienna,  48°;  Rome, 
42°;  St.  Petersburg,  60';  Constantinople,  41° ;  Rio 
Janeiro,  23°  south. 

32.  "Where  any  prime  meridian,  as  that  of  Wash- 
ington or  Greenwich,  crosses  the  equator. 

33.  77  degrees. 

34.  An  island  is  a  body  of  land  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  water.  An  archipelago  is  a  group  of 
islands.  A  peninsula  is  a  body  of  land  nearly  sur- 
rounded by  water.  A  cape  is  a  point  of  land  extend- 
ing into  the  water.  An  isthmus  is  a  neck  of  land 
connectinor  two  laro;er  bodies  of  land. 

35.  A  mountain  is  a  great  elevation  of  land.  A 
mountain  range  is  a  connected  line  of  mountains.  A 
volcano  is  a  mountain  which  sends  forth  fire,  smoke, 
ashes,  and  lava.  A  water  shed  is  the  ridge  or  elevated 
land  from  which  water  flows  in  different  directions. 

36.  The  gulf  stream,  warmed  by  the  equatorial 
heat,  gives  off  its  warmth  to  the  British  Isles,  while 
the  cold  Arctic  winds  and  currents  render  Labrador 
too  cold  for  cultivation. 

37.  Vesuvius,  in  southern  Italy;  Etna,  in  Sicily; 
Hecla,  in  Iceland  ;  Cotopaxi,  in  Ecuador. 

38.  The  Equatorial  Current,  Gulf  Stream,  and  the 
Japan  Current  are  warm ;  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  cur- 
rents are  cold. 

39.  Toward  the  North  Pole. 


124  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

40.  A  cascade  is  a  stream  flowing  down  a  precipice. 
A  confluence  is  the  meeting  of  two  rivers.  A  Frith 
or  Estuary  is  the  narrow  and  deep  inlet  of  the  sea  at 
the  mouth  of  a  river.  A  glacier  is  a  mass  of  snow  and 
ice  moving  slowly  down  the  side  of  a  mountain.  An 
avalanche  is  a  mass  of  snow,  ice,  and  earth  rolling 
down  the  side  of  a  mountain. 

41.  The  Ecliptic  is  the  orbit,  or  path,  which  the 
earth  describes  in  its  yearly  revolution.  It  is  so  called 
because  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon  happen  in  or 
near  its  plane.  Its  mean  distance  from  ths  sun  is  92,- 
000,000  miles.  The  length  of  the  orbit  is  577,000,000 
miles. 

42.  The  velocity  of  the  earth  is  1,099  miles  a  min- 
ute. 

43.  If  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  were  greater 
than  at  present  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  would  ex- 
tend farther  north  and  south  than  the  present  tropics, 
and,  consequently,  prolong  the  summers  and  win- 
ters. 

44.  Quebec  has  the  longer  twilight.  On  June  21, 
at  Havana,  the  sun  in  setting  passes  downward  verti- 
cally. At  Quebec,  on  same  day,  the  sun  in  setting 
north  of  west  passes  downward  diagonally  toward  the 
north,  thus  leaving  the  reflection  of  its  rays  above  the 
horizon  longer  than  when  it  sets  due  west. 

45.  Climate  is  the  condition  of  a  place  in  relation 
to  its  temperature,  moisture,  and  atmosphere.  It  is 
influenced  by  latitude,  elevation,  prevailing  winds, 
nearness  to  the  ocean,  and  mountain  ranges. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY.  125 

46.  The  temperature  diminishes  1°  for  every  350 
feet  of  elevation,  and  1°  for  eveiy  100  miles  from  the 
equator. 

47.  The  western  coast  of  Europe  is  warmed  by  the 
Gulf  Stream ;  the  Japan  Current  imparts  its  moisture 
and  warmth  to  the  western  coast  of  the  U.  S.  The 
eastern  shores  of  Asia  and  America  are  cooled  by  cold 
currents  from  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

48.  The  Caucasian,  or  white  race;  Ex.  Europeans 
and  their  descendants ;  The  Mongolian,  or  yellow 
race;  Ex.  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Esquimaux;  The 
Malay,  or  brown  race;  Ex.  The  inhabitants  of  Malay 
Peninsula  and  East  Indies;  American  Indian,  or  red 
race ;  Ex.  The  Indians  of  the  Territories ;  The  Ethi- 
opian, or  black  race;  Ex.  The  inhabitants  of  Lower 
and  Upper  Guinea. 

49.  Kepublics,  Empires,  Kingdoms. 

50.  A  Ecpublic  is  a  country  governed  by  represen- 
tatives elected  by  the  people;  Ex.  The  United  States, 
Peru ;  An  Empire  is  a  region  comprising  several  coun- 
tries governed  by  a  monarch  styled  Emperor ;  Ex. 
Eussia,  Germany.  A  Kingdom  is  a  country  governed 
by  a  King  or  Queen;  Ex,  Spain,  Denmark.  A  Lim- 
ited Monarchy  is  a  government  in  which  the  power  of 
the  monarch  is  limited  by  law;  Ex.  Great  Britain, 
Prussia.  An  Absolute  Monarchy  is  a  government  in 
which  the  power  of  the  ruler  is  unlimited  ;  Ex.  Russia, 
China. 

51.  A  village  is  a  small  collection  of  houses  and  in- 
habitants.    A  town  is  laro;er  than  a  village.     Cities  are 


126  ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

large  towns  having  special  privileges  granted  by  law. 
The  capital  is  the  city  in  which  the  laws  are  made. 
The  Metropolis  is  that  city  of  a  state  or  country  which 
contains  the  largest  number  of  inhabitants. 

52.  Agriculture,  manufacturing,  commerce,  mining, 
lumbering,  fishing,  hunting,  and  trapping. 

53.  Commerce  carried  on  between  parts  of  the  same 
country  is  called  domestic;  carried  on  between  differ- 
ent countries  is  called  foreign.  Imports  are  goods 
brought  into  a  country,  exports  are  those  sent  out. 

54.  Civilized,  half-civilized,  barbarous,  and  savage. 

55.  Christian,  Jewish,  Mohammedan,  and  Pagan. 

56.  Equinoxes,  meaning  equal  nights,  are  times  in 
the  year  when  the  sun's  rays  fall  vertical  to  the  equa- 
tor.    They  occur  March  20  and  September  22. 

57.  The  Solstices,  meaning  the  sun  standing;  are 
times  in  the  3^ear  when  the  sun's  rajs  fall  vertical  to 
the  tropics.  The  summer  solstice  occurs  June  21,  the 
the  winter  solstice,  December  21.  During  the  former 
the  sun's  rays  'are  vertical  to  the  Tropic  of  Cancer, 
when  the  days  are  longest  north  of  the  equator.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  solstice  the  sun's  rays  are  vertical  to  the 
Tropic  of  Capricorn,  when  the  days  are  longest  south 
of  the  equator. 

58.  North  America — The Eocky Mountains;  South 
America  —  The  Andes;  Europe  —  The  Alps;  Asia  — 
The  Himalaya  ;  Africa  —  The  Atlas. 

59.  Australia,  Greenland,  Borneo,  New  Guinea, 
Madagascar,  Sumatra,  Niphon,  Great  Britain. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY.  127 

60.  North  America,  9,000,000  square  miles;  South 
America,  7,000,000;  Europe,  3,800,000;  Asia,  17,- 
000,000;  Africa,  11,500,000. 

01.  North  America,  Mississippi  —  4,396  miles; 
South  America,  Amazon  —  3,596  miles;  Europe, 
Volga — 2,351  ;  Asia,  Yenisei  —  3,688;  Africa, Nile  — 
3,895  miles. 

62.  To  the  waters  supposed  to  lie  south  of  the  Ant- 
arctic Circle. 

63.  Thirteen  times  as  much. 

64.  Alaska,  California,  Florida,  Spain,  Arabia,  Indo- 
China,  Corea,  Kamtchatka,  Africa,  and  Malacca. 

65.  83°  24'  north.     (Greely  Expedition,  1884.) 

66.  The  Llama  of  Peru. 

67.  In  the  Antarctic  regions  there  are  no  land 
masses  to  receive  and  diffuse  the  rays  of  the  sun  as  in 
the  Arctic  regions. 

68.  Gulf  of  Mexico;  Hudson  Bay;  Baffin  Bay; 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  California;  Chesapeake  Bay; 
Delaware  Bay  ;  James  Bay  ;  Bay  of  Campeachy ;  Bay 
of  Honduras. 

60.  Great  Bear,  Great  Slave,  Athabasca,  Winni- 
peg, Superior,  Michigan,  Huron,  Erie,  Ontario,  Nica- 
ragua. 

70.  The  Western  Highland,  the  Eastern  Highland, 
the  Low  Central  Plain,  and  the  Atlantic  Plain. 

71.  British  America,  Danish  America  (Greenland 
and  Iceland),  United  States,  Mexico,  Central  American 
Republics,  The  West  Indies. 


128  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY. 

72.  In  the  north:  polar  bear,  reindeer,  musk-ox, 
moose,  walrus,  grizzly  bear  ;  in  the  central  part:  bison, 
deer,  peccary;   in  the  south,  the  alligator. 

73.  Area,  3000000  square  miles.  Population, 
50000000.  Breadth  from  north  to  south,  1300  miles. 
Length  from  east  to  west,  2500  miles. 

74.  The  White  race,  Indians,  Chinese,  and  Negroes. 

75.  Deep  cuts,  or  gorges,  many  hundred  feet  deep 
lined  by  perpendicular  walls,  formed  by  the  flowing 
of  rivers.  The  Colorado  Eiver  has  the  most  frightful 
canons  in  the  world. 

76.  For  their  numerous  falls,  furnishing  excellent 
water-power. 

77.  Thirty-eight  states,  ten  territories,  and  one 
federal  district. 

78.  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Brooklyn,  Chicago, 
St.  Louis,  Boston,  Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  San  Fran- 
cisco, New  Orleans. 

79.  Because  of  its  abundant  water-power,  fuel,  labor, 
and  superior  commercial  facilities. 

80.  Exports:  Cotton,  breadstuffs,  provisions,  petro- 
leum, and  tobacco.  Imports:  Dry  goods,  sugar, 
coffee,  tea,  tin. 

81.  Consult  map  of  North  America. 

82.  New  England  is  about  one-third  as  large  as 
California,  and  about  one-fourth  as  large  as  Texas. 

83.  From  Washington  City  to  Jefferson  City,  Mo. 

84.  Yale,  New  Haven,  Ct. ;  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge,  Mass.;  Brown  University,  Providence, 
E.  I.  ;  Dartmouth,  Hanover,  N.  H. ;  Vassar,  Pough- 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY  129 

keepsie,  N.  Y. ;  William  and  INIary  College   AVilliams- 
burg,  Va. 

85.  Minnesota,  St.  Paul;  Wisconsin,  Madison; 
Iowa,  Des  Moines;  Illinois,  Springfield;  Missouri, 
Jefferson  City;  Kentucky,  Frankfort;  Tennessee, 
Nashville;  Arkansas,  Little  Rock;  Mississippi,  Jack- 
son; Louisiana,  Baton  Rouge. 

86.  In  the  value  of  their  manufactures  and  com- 
merce. 

87.  Its  government  is  similar  to  that  of  the  terri- 
tories. The  Governor  is  appointed  by  the  President 
and  Senate.     It  has  one  dele2;ate  to  Cong-ress. 

88.  For  the  variety,  excellence,  and  abundance  of 
its  fish  and  oysters. 

89.  Madrid,  Naples,  and  Constantinople ;  all  of 
which  have  a  milder  and  more  equable  climate  than 
Philadelphia.  This  is  due  to  the  warm  winds  of  the 
Sahara,  moistened  by  the  evaporation  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea. 

90.  They  protect  the  navigation  of  the  entire  coast 
of  North  Carolina. 

91.  Tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine.  The  turpentine  is 
obtained  by  blazing  the  tree,  and  dipping  the  gum 
from  a  box  that  is  put  at  the  root  to  receive  it  as  it  ex- 
udes from  the  tree.  Tar  is  obtained  by  burning  pino 
wood  with  a  close  smothering  heat  and  collecting  the 
resinous     exudations. 

92.  Florida  has  the  mildest  climate  of  the  Southern 
States.  The  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Gulf  of  jNIexico,  by 
which  it  is  almost  surrounded,  temper  the  heat  of  sum- 


130  ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY. 

nier.  The  soil  is  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  almost 
every  fruit  and  vegetable.  The  live-oak,  the  most 
valuable  wood  used  in  ship  building,  will  become  a 
source  of  wealth.  The  State  abounds  in  beautiful 
lakes,  and  clear,  deep  springs.  Some  of  the  lakes  are 
deep  enough  to  float  a  man-of-war,  and  yet  so  clear 
are  they,  that  pebbles  may  be  distinctly  seen  on  the 
bottom. 

93.  By  embankments,  called ?eyees.  In  many  places, 
below  the  mouth  of  Red  River,  the  surface  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi during  high  water  is  above  the  land  back  of  the 
levees. 

94.  From  the  forest  trees  of  the  swamp  lands  of  the 
South,  from  which  may  be  seen  the  long  gray  moss, 
which,  as  a  parasite,  hangs  in  long  and  graceful  festoons. 

95.  An  immense  collection  of  logs  extending  for 
nearly  one  hundred  miles,  ilniong  these  trees  and  logs, 
vines  and  creepers  have  taken  root,  and  their  tendrils 
have  so  interwoven  among  the  branches  that  the  whole 
has  become  matted  together  from  bank  to  bank. 

96.  By  the  U.S.  Congress  for  the  Indians  and  their 
descendants  to  be  occupied  and  governed  in  their  own 
way. 

97.  The  eastern  tributaries  are  more  rapid  in  de- 
scent. They  are  not  navigable  to  so  great  a  distance. 
The  plains  are  not  so  extended.  The  rapidity  of  the 
streams  permit  the  discharge  of  the  waters  much  sooner 
than  the  long  gentle  streams  of  the  West. 

98.  The  Mississippi  valley.  The  vast  area  of  arable 
land,  susceptible  of  an  easy  cultivation,  will  for  ages 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON    GEOGRAPHY.  131 

produce  food  sufficient  for  the  support  of  300,000,000 
people. 

99.  Corn,  wheat,  oats,  hay,  potatoes,  tobacco,  live 
stock,  iron,  copper,  and  lead. 

100.  By  a  canal  on  the  Kentucky  shore. 

101.  ( 1 )  Its  rapid  growth.  (  2 )  Its  extensive  railway 
connections.  (3)  The  enterprise  of  its  people.  (4)  Its 
grain  and  provision  trade. 

102.  Because  it  is  nearly  surrounded  by  water 

103.  By  a  ship  canal  in  Michigan. 

104.  The  winds  blowing  across  Lake  Michigan  are 
so  warmed  by  the  open  waters  that  fruit-trees  are 
seldom  injured  by  extreme  cold. 

105.  (a)  It  lies  almost  wholly  in  the  northwest  cor- 
ner of  Wyoming  Territory.  (6)  Its  area  is  3575  square 
miles,  (c)  Congress  in  1882  set  it  apart  as  a  "  per- 
petual reservation  for  the  benefit  and  instruction  of 
mankind."  (tZ)  Its  deep  canons,  lofty  falls,  numer- 
ous geysers,  and  beautiful  lakes  make  it  the  most  won- 
derful portion  of  the  continent,  (e)  Clark's  Fork  of 
the  Yellowstone,  the  Lewis  Fork  of  the  Columbia,  and 
the  Madison  and  Gallatin  branches  of  the  Missouri. 

106.  Washington,  Olympia ;  Idaho,  Boise  City; 
Montana,  Helena;  Wyoming,  Cheyenne;  Utah,  Salt 
Lake  City ;  Arizona,  Prescott ;  New  Mexico,  Santa  Fe ; 
Dakota,  Bismarck  ;  Indian,  Tahlcquah;  Alaska,  Sitka. 

107.  Because  it  is  the  natural  water  route  to  the 
most  fertile  spot  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

108.  The  absence  of  numerous  bays,  harbors,  and 
navigable  streams  on  the  Pacific  coast  will  prevent  the 


132  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

location  of  as  many  seaports  as  are  found  on  the  Atlan- 
tic coast. 

109.  Dry  Tortugas,  Islands  off  the  coast  of  Florida  ; 
Managua,  capital  city  of  Nicaragua ;  The  Pan  Handle  is 
that  portion  of  West  Virginia  lying  between  Ohio  and 
Pennsylvania ;  The  Eastern  shore  is  that  part  of  Virginia 
lying  east  of  Chesapeake  Bay  ;  Sandy  Hook  is  a  Cape 
in  New  Jersey. 

110.  The  Hudson,  East  and  Harlem  Eivers,  and  a 
creek  running  into  the  Hudson. 

111.  North  America,  Superior;  South  America,  Mar- 
acaybo;  Europe,  Ladoga ;  Asia,  Baikal;  Africa,  Vic- 
toria. 

112.  (a)  On  the  180th  meridian  from  Greenwich. 
(b)  If  sailing  westward,  a  day  is  added;  if  sailing  east- 
ward, a  day  is  dropped. 

113.  In  New  Orleans,  90  degrees  west  from  Lon- 
don. 

114.  At  London,  north  ;  at  Tunis,  north  ;  at  Mecca, 
south  ;  at  Rio  Janeiro,  south ;  at  Muscat,  no  perceptible 
shadow. 

115.  I.Chinese  Empire;  2.  British  Empire;  3. 
Eussian  Empire ;  4.  United  States  ;  5.  German  Empire. 

116.  Corn,  "Wheat  andpats,  Illinois  ;  Potatoes,  New 
York;  Sweet  Potatoes,  North  Carolina;  Tobacco, 
Kentucky;  Cotton,  Mississijopi ;  Wool,  Ohio  ;  Manu- 
facturing products,  New  York ;  mining  products,  Penn- 
sylvania. 

117.  The  United  States  have  more  miles  of  railroad 
than  all  the  countries  of  Europe  combined. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON   GEOGRAPHY.         133 

118.  Belgium,  482  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile. 

119.  It  runs  from  Behring  Strait  southwest,  along 
the  ocean  side  of  Japan,  and  between  the  Phillipine 
Islands  and  Asia;  thence  it  curves,  taking  a  south- 
easterly course  to  Chatham  Island,  passing  on  the 
Pacific  side  of  Borneo,  New  Guinea,  New  Ireland,  and 
the  New  Hebrides,  and  east  of  New  Zealand. 

120.  8  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Cincinnati. 

121.  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Colorado,  Utah, 
Nevada,  and  California. 

122.  Cumberland  Kiver,  Ohio  River,  Mssissippi 
River,  and  Arkansas  River. 

123.  In  its  early  charter  the  General  Assembly  was 
required  to  meet  alternately  at  each  place. 

124.  Springfield,  manufacture  of  arms;  Annapolis, 
seat  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy;  Pittsburg,  iron  and 
glass  works ;  Paterson,  locomotive  works  and  extensive 
silk  manufactures;  Indianapolis,  great  railroad  center 
and  largest  city  in  the  United  States  not  on  navigable 
waters. 

125.  Salado,  river  in  Argentine  Confederation ;  Pop- 
ocatepetl, a  volcano  in  southern  Mexico;  Welland,  a 
canal  in  Canada  connecting  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario; 
Elburz,  mountains  in  Persia ;  Batavia,  the  capital  city 
of  Java;  Ormus,  strait  separating  Persian  Gulf  and 
Arabian  Sea  ;  Brest,  a  city  in  western  France ;  Finland, 
a  gulf  in  Western  Russia;  Manilla,  the  capital  city  of 
Luzon  ( Phillipine  Islands ) ;  Tenncriffe,  a  famous  peak 
of  the  Canary  Islands. 


134  ANS^VERS   TO    QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY. 

126.  About  seven-eighths. 

127.  By  a  few  hundred  Danes  and  Esquimaux. 
AVhen  first  seen  by  Icelanders  it  looked  green  and  fertile 
compared  with  their  island. 

128.  For  its  numerous  geysers  and  volcanoes.  Itis 
peopled  by  descendants  of  Norwegians,  a  thrifty  and 
industrious  race  who  speak  the  old  Norse  language. 

129.  Its  fisheries  and  furs. 

130.  Dominion  of  Canada,  Newfoundland,  Balize, 
Bermudas,  Jamaica,  and  a  number  of  smaller  islands 
of  the  West  Indies. 

131.  British  Columbia,  Manitoba,  Ontario,  Quebec, 
New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island, 
and  Northwest  and  Northeast  territories. 

132.  By  a  Governor-General  under  appointment  of 
the  British  crown.  The  laws  are  enacted  by  a  Parlia- 
ment composed  of  a  senate  and  house  of  commons. 
The  senators  are  appointed  by  the  Governor-General; 
members  of  the  House  of  Commons  are  elected  by  the 
people. 

133.  The  Canadian  territories  furnish  two-thirds  of 
the  world's  supply. 

134.  Vessels  pass  through  Welland  Canal  from  Lake 
Erie  to  Lake  Ontario,  and  through  canals  around  the 
rapids  in  St.  Lawrence  River. 

135.  For  its  high  tide,  which  reaches  70  feet.  This 
is  caused  by  the  narrow  neck  of  water  through  which 
the  tides  rush  with  such  rapidity  as  often  to  overtake 
swine  feeding  on  the  beach. 

136.  In  the  cod,  seal,  herring,  and  salmon  fisheries 


ANSWEES   TO    QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY.  135 

137.  Vermont,  Burlington  ;  North  Carolina,  Wil- 
mington; Arkansas,  Little  Rock;  Oregon,  Portland ; 
Nevada,  Virginia  City. 

138.  (of)  New  York  has  thirty-five  electoral  votes, 
seven  more  than  Pennsylvania.  (6)  The  number  is 
proportional  to  the  population. 

139.  (rt)  325  members.  (6)  One  member  for  every 
151,912  inhabitants. 

140.  Philadelphia,  York,  Lancaster,  Baltimore, 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  Annapolis,  Trenton,  N.  J.,  New  York 
and  Washington. 

141.  The  Gulf  Stream  and  prevailing  winds  aid  the 
vessels  going  eastward. 

142.  Tapajos,  a  branch  of  the  Amazon  River; 
Tchad,  a  lake  in  Soudan,  Africa;  Anticosti,  an  island 
in  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  Levant  is  that  portion 
of  Asia  washed  by  the  eastern  end  of  the  IMediterra- 
nean  Sea;  Three  Rivers,  a  city  in  Quebec,  Canada; 
Pembina,  a  city  in  northeast  Dakota;  Atacama,  a 
desert  in  southwest  Bolivia ;  Heart's  Content,  a  town 
in  Newfoundland;  Otranto,  a  strait  east  of  Italy; 
Severn,  a  river  in  western  England;  Taranto,  a  gulf  in 
southern  Italy. 

143.  Iowa  and  IHinois,  also  Nevada  and  Colo- 
rado. 

144.  Three  small  islands  south  of  Newfoundland, 
Miquelon,  Langley,  and  St.  Pierre,  comprising  eighty- 
one  square  miles. 

145.  Brazil  is  a  quarter  of  a  million  square  miles  the 
larger. 


136  ANSAVERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY. 

146.  Illinois  contains  nearly  6,000  more  square 
miles  than  England,  but  has  only  one-sixth  as  many 
inhabitants. 

147.  Mexico  has  the  greatest  possible  variety  of 
climate  ;  cold  on  the  high  mountains,  temperate  on  the 
plateaus,  and  hot  and  moist  on  the  coast. 

148.  It  is  a  federal  republic  of  27  states,  one 
territory,  and  one  federal  district.  Its  people  consist 
of  Indians,  mixed  races,  and  Spanish  Creoles;  ^.e.,  de- 
scendants of  the  early  Spanish  settlers.  Its  chief  ex- 
ports are  silver,  dye-woods,  cochineal  and  vanilla. 

149.  Of  five  republics:  Guatemala,  San  Salvador, 
Honduras,  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  and  Balize,  a 
British  colony. 

150.  It  contains  the  principal  routes  connecting  the 
commerce  of  the  two  great  oceans. 

151.  By  the  ocean  currents  and  trade  winds. 

152.  Sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  tropical 
fruits.  Creoles  (descendants  of  European  settlers), 
negroes  and  coolies  from  China ;  they  number  about 
4500000.  The  West  Indies  include  about  one  thou- 
sand islands. 

153.  Havana  is  the  greatest  sugar  market  in  the 
world,  and  is  the  second  city  of  the  New  World  in 
foreign  commerce. 

154.  The  Amazon  is  so  deep,  and  so  sluggish  is  the 
current  that  a  sailing  vessel  may  ascend  by  the  aid  of 
an  almost  constant  easterly  wind  2600  miles.  The 
river  and  its  branches  furnish  50000  miles  of  navigable 
waters. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY.  137 

155.  Chesapeake  Bay,  Atlantic  Ocean,  Florida 
Strait,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Bay  of  Campeach}^,  Yucatan 
Channel,  Caribbean  Sea,  and  Gulf  of  Venezuela. 

156.  On  account  of  the  absence  of  few  good 
harbors. 

157.  Republic.  Roman  Catholic  religion.  Pop- 
ulation 28000000,  of  whom  more  than  one-half  belong 
to  mixed  races,  derived  from  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
settlers,  Indians,  and  Negroes. 

158.  A  constitutional  monarchy.  Brazil  contains 
one-fifth  as  many  people  as  the  U.  S. 

159.  Lima.  Washington  and  Lima  have  the  same 
time. 

160.  The  Andes  is  the  greatest  mountain  chain; 
Aconcagua  is  the  highest  mountain ;  Rio  Janeiro  is  the 
largest  city ;  Panama  is  the  largest  gulf. 

161.  Consult  map  of  South  America. 

162.  Caracas  has  1  hr.  and  33  min.  earlier  time. 

163.  Llanos  in  the  Orinoco  basin ;  Selvas  in  the 
Amazon;  Pampas  in  the  La  Plata  and  Paraguay. 

164.  The  condor,  the  largest  known  bird  of  prey,  is 
found  among  the  Andes  in  Peru  and  Bolivia. 

165.  The  Selvas  are  covered  with  an  almost  impen- 
etrable growth  of  trees,  climbing  plants,  and  dense 
underbrush .  Myriads  of  beasts,  birds,  and  insects,  and 
uncivilized  tribes  are  the  sole  inhabitants.  The  Llanos 
of  the  Orinoco  and  the  Pampas  of  the  La  Plata  and 
Paraguay  are  destitute  of  trees.  In  the  dry  season 
they  become  parched  and  all  vegetation  is  destroyed. 
When  the  rainy  season  sets  in  the  whole  country  is 


138  ANS'W'ERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON   GEOGRAPHY. 

covered  with  luxuriant  grass,  which  attracts  multitudes 
of  wild  cattle  and  horses. 

1G6.  Coffee,  Sugar,  Tobacco,  Eice,  Maise,  Cinchona, 
Caoutchouc  (india-rubber).  Precious  Stones,  Tropical 
Fruits,  and  Spices. 

167.  Eosewood,  mahogany.  Brazil-wood,  tortoise- 
shell  wood,  the  most  beautiful  cabinet-wood  in  the 
world,  and  the  India  rubber  tree. 

168.  Eio  Janeiro,  Buenos  Ay  res,  Aspinwall,  Val- 
paraiso, Montevideo. 

169.  The  Chilians.  This  is  due  to  extensive  com- 
merce and  a  large  European  population. 

170.  Portuguese,  because  Brazil  was  settled  by  the 
Portuguese. 

171.  To  Great  Britain.  Excellent  pasturage  for 
cattle  and  sheep. 

172.  They  are  the  only  inhabitable  group  of  islands 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean  that  were  uninhabited  at  the  time 
of  their  discovery. 

173.  Consult  map  of  South  America. 

174.  The  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes  from  Bolivia 
to  the  U.  S.  of  Colombia  and  to  no  other  part  of  the 
world.     The  forests  are  being  rapidly  all  destroyed. 

175.  Paraguay. 

176.  The  United  States,  Eussia,  China,  Turkey,  and 
Brazil. 

176.  Area,  3824240  sq.  miles;  population,  313- 
834000. 

178.  The  coast-line  of  Europe  is  about  20000  miles 
greater  in  proportion  than  that  of  any  other  of  the 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY.  139 

grand  divisions.  Greater  commercial  facilities  and  cli- 
matic advantages  are  offered  by  a  deeply  indented  coast 
than  a  by  more  regular  outline. 

179.  Caspian,  Azof,  Black,  Marmora,  Archipelago, 

Adriatic,  Mediterranean,  Irish,  North,  Baltic,  White. 

•  180.  4  Empires,  14  Kingdoms,  5  Eepublics,  5  Grand 

Duchies,  8  Duchies,  4  Free  Cities,  9  Principalities,  1 

Landofraviate,    and    1    Electorate. 

181.  Consult  map  of  Europe.  ' 

182.  France,  Switzerland,  Andorra,  San  Marino, 
and  the  Ionian  Isles. 

183.  San  Marino,  in  Italy. 

184.  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  Austria  and  Hungary. 

185.  America  possesses  greater  political  privileges, 
cheaper  land,  and  a  greater  demand  for  labor. 

186.  A  high  state  of  improvement  both  in  country 
and  towns,  absence  of  fences,  vast  extent  of  improved 
lands^  limited  forests,  magnificent  mansions,  spacious 
barns,  great  number  of  villages,  excellent  roads  and, 
withal,  a  most  vigilant  system  of  municipal  and  national 
government. 

187.  Lions,  Biscay,  Finland,  Bothnia,  and  Onega. 

188.  St.  Petersburg  is  in  the  same  latitude  as  Cape 
Farewell. 

189.  London,  Paris,  Constantinople,  Berlin,  St. 
Petersburg,  Vienna,  Liverpool,  Manchester,  Glasgow, 
Naples. 

190.  Lipari  Islands,  north  of  Sicily ;  L.  Como, 
northern  Italy;  Palermo,  N.  W.  Sicily;  Elba,  N.  E. 
of  Corsica;  Hamburg,  N.  W.  Prussia  on  Elbe  River. 


140  ANSAVERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

191.  Gulf  of  Genoa,  Mediterranean  Sea,  Tyrrhen- 
ian Sea,  Strait  of  Messina,  Ionian  Sea,  Strait  of 
Otranto,  Adriatic  Sea,  Gulf  of  Trieste. 

192.  Russia  and  Germany. 

193.  In  Europe ;  The  islands  of  Malta,  Cyprus, 
Jersey,  Guernsey,  Alderney  and  Heligoland,  and  tlie 
Fort  of  Gibraltar ;  in  America :  Dominion  of  Canada 
and  adjacent  islands,  Balize,  British  Guiana,  and  the 
islands  of  Bahama,  Bermuda,  Jamaica,  Turk,  Lee- 
ward, Windward,  Trinidad,  and  Falkland;  in  Asia: 
India,  Hong  Kong,  Singapore,  Aden,  Malacca,  and 
Ceylon  Island  ;  in  Africa  :  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Natal, 
Caffraria,  Transvaal,  Gold  Coast,  Sierra  Leone,  and 
the  Islands  of  St.  Helena,  Ascension  and  Mauritius  ; 
in  Oceanica :  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Tasmania  and 
Feejee  Islands. 

194.  The  winter  climate  of  England  is  milder  than 
that  of  S.  Carolina.  This  is  due  to  the  warm  west 
winds  blowing  from  the  Gulf  Stream. 

195.  English  railroads  have  double  tracks.  They 
are  not  allowed  to  cross  each  other  on  the  same 
level,  but  are  compelled  to  cross  by  going  under  or 
over. 

196.  On  account  of  the  great  number  of  iron  and 
coal  mines. 

197.  Liverpool,  greatest  cotton  market  of  the  world ; 
Manchester,  cotton  manufacture;  Leeds,  woolens; 
Nottingham,  laces  and  stockings ;  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne,  coal  trade;  Sheffield,  cutlery;  Portsmouth; 
naval  station;  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  Universities. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON    GEOGRAPHY.  141 

198.  Twilight  sufficient  to  enable  one  to  read  lasts 
all  night. 

199.  Four:  two  English  and  one  French  between 
Heart's  Content,  .Newfoundland,  and  Valentia  Bay, 
Ireland;  and  one  between  Rio  Janeiro  and  Portugal. 

200.  Consult  map  of  Europe. 

201.  In  the  western  part  of  Ireland  it  rains  three- 
fourths  of  the  year,  and  the  climate  is  damp  and 
mild;  so  much  so,  even  in  winter,  that  its  green 
fields  have  won  for  it  the  name  of  the  "Emerald 
Isle." 

202.  Belfast,  manufacture  of  linen  goods;  Paris, 
excellence  in  the  manufacture  of  almost  every  fancy 
article  in  the  market;  Lyons,  silk  manufacture;  Bor- 
deaux, for  its  wines;  Glasgow,  ship  building  and 
marine  engines. 

203.  The  Gulf  of  Finland  is  closed  with  ice  half  the 
year,  while  ice  never  forms  in  the  harbor  of  Hammer- 
f  est.  The  mildness  of  the  latter  is  due  to  the  influence 
of  the  Gulf  Stream. 

204.  Austria. 

205.  The  Jews. 

206.  Inland  trade,  Vienna  ;  foreign  trade,  Trieste. 

207.  Almaden,  Spain. 

208.  Constantinople  has  been  so  regarded  by  the 
great  powers  of  Europe. 

209.  It  commands  the  passage  between  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Atlantic. 

210.  A  famous  Moorish  palace  in  Granada,  Spain, 
now  in  ruins. 


142  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

211.  Venice  is  situated  upon  72  islands,  between 
which  the  waters,  serving  as  streets,  are  navigated  by 
gondolas. 

212.  It  is  50,000  square  miles  smaller,  but  contains 
34  times  as  many  people. 

213.  Brighton,  in  southern  England,  and  Baden- 
Baden,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Rhenish-Prussia. 

214.  It  is  found  along  the  coast  of  the  Baltic  Sea, 
where  it  is  cast  up  by  the  waves. 

215.  Belgium 

216.  From  Switzerland,  the  rivers  Danube,  Ehine, 
Ehone,  and  Po  flow  into  the  Black,  North,  Mediter- 
ranean, and  Adriatic  Seas. 

217-  The  Dutch  are  a  sober,  provident,  and  indus- 
trious people  ;  the  Swiss  are  phlegmatic,  industrious 
and  patriotic. 

218.  The  southeast  part  of  Russia,  termed  the 
"Black  Lands  of  Russia,"  bordering  on  the  Caspian 
and  Black  Seas.  The  soil  is  inexhaustible,  yielding 
annually,  without,  manure,  two  crops:  a  green  crop 
and  a  cereal. 

219.  London,  where  the  breadstuffs  of  the  world 
meet  in  competition. 

220.  Russia,  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

221.  The  Steppes  of  Russia,  immense  prairies  cov- 
ered with  coarse  grass,  and  subject  to  intense  summer 
droughts,  extend  along  the  southern  border  of  Russia, 
from  the  foot  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains  in  Europe, 
to  China. 


ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY.  143 

222.  At  Nijni  (nizh'ni)  Novgorod,  Russia,  where 
meet  and  barter  merchants  from  China,  Mongolia, 
India,  Afghanistan,  Persia,  Turkey,  and  every  part  of 
Europe. 

223.  Tne  town  T  north  is  farther  from  London, 
than  that  2""  west  of  it,  because  the  degrees  of  longi- 
tude grow  smaller  as  we  approach  the  Poles. 

224.  Archangel  is  the  northern  port,  Odessa  the 
southern;  the  former  is  on  the  White  Sea,  the  latter  is 
on  the  Black  Sea. 

225.  Greek  Christians.  The  Emperor  is  the  head 
of  the  church. 

226.  The  Russians  belong  chiefly  to  the  Slavonic 
race. 

227.  Amphiscians :  the  inhabitants  between  the 
tropics,  whose  shadows^  in  one  part  of  the  year,  are 
cast  to  the  north,  and  in  the  other  to  the  south. 
Antiscians  :  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  living  on  dif- 
ferent sides  of  the  Equator,  whose  shadows  at  noon 
are  cast  in  contrary  directions.  Those  living  north  of 
the  Equator  are  antiscians  to  those  on  the  south,  and 
vice  versa,  Ascians  :  persons  who  at  certain  times  of 
the  3^ear  have  no  shadow  at  noon.  Such  only  are  the 
inhabitants  of  the  torrid  zone,  who  have,  twice  a  year, 
a  vertical  sun.  Periecians ;  the  inhabitants  of  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  globe,  in  the  same  parallel  of 
latitude.  Pericians :  the  inhabitants  within  a  polar 
circle,  whose  shadow  during  some  portion  of  the  sum- 
mer must,  in  the  course  of  the  day,  move  entirely 
round,  and  fall  toward  every  point  of  the  compass. 


144  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY. 

(See  Ques.  39.)  Antipodes:  those  persons  who  live 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  globe,  and  whose  feet  are,  of 
course,  directly  opposite  to  the  feet  of  those  who  live 
on  this  side. 

228.  Gulf  of  Finland,  Baltic  Sea,  Great  Belt, 
Straits  of  Cattegat  and  SkagerRack,  North  Sea,  Dover 
Strait,  Enghsh  Channel,  Atlantic  Ocean,  Strait  of  Gib- 
raltar, Mediterranean  Sea,  Archipelago  Sea,  Strait  of 
Dardanelles,  Sea  of  Marmora,  Bosphorus  Strait,  and 
Black  Sea. 

229.  Dover  Strait,  30  miles;  Gibraltar,  12;  Beh- 
ring,  40. 

230.  From  the  Romans,  Greeks,  Gauls,  Goths,  Ger- 
mans, and  Arabs. 

231.  In  Havana,  Spanish  ;  Constantinople,  Arabic; 
Quebec,  English;  Rio  Janeiro,  Portuguese;  Berne, 
German. 

232.  The  Valdai  Hills  are  between  St.  Petersburg 
and  Moscow.  The  Matterhorn  is  an  Alpine  peak  be- 
tween Italy  and  Switzerland. 

233.  A  Mercator  Map,  or  projection,  conceives  the 
surface  of  the  earth  to  be  that  of  a  cylinder,  in  which 
the  parallels  and  meridians  cross  each  other  at  right 
angles.  It  was  invented  by  Mercator,  of  Antwerp,  to 
aid  mariners  in  determining  their  true  course  more 
readily  than  by  the  ordinary  maps. 

234.  Mercator' s  Map  distorts  the  proportions  by 
representing  the  surface  of  a  sphere  on  that  of  a  plane, 
in  which,  places  far  to  the  north  or  south  appear  much 
more  distant  east  and  west  than  they  really  are ;  but 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY.  145 

this  distortion  is  made  in  such  away  as  to  preserve  the 
true  course  of  places  from  each  other. 

235.   (rt)  The  Parliament  consists  of  the  House  of 
Lords  and  the  House  of  Commons ;  these  correspond  to 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  respectively. 
The  House  of   Lords  is  composed  of  537  members, 
termed  peers,  who  hold  their  seats  by  one  of  five  titles ; 
viz. ,  by  hereditary  right,  by  creation  of  the  sovereign,  by 
virtue  of  office,  as  the  English  bishops,  by  election  for 
life,  as  the  Irish  peers,  and  by  election  for  the  duration 
of  Parliament,  as  the  Scottish  peers.     The  House  of 
Commons  is  composed  of  652  members,  who  are  elected 
by  the  electors  of  counties,  cities,  boroughs,  and  univer- 
sities of  the  united  kingdom.     The  United  States  Senate 
is  composed   of  76  members,  two   from   each   State, 
chosen  for  a  term  of  six  years  by  the  joint  ballot  of  their 
respective  State  legislatures.     The  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives consists  of  325  members,  apportioned  among 
the  several  States  according  to  population,  elected  by 
popular  ballot  by  the  electors  of  their  several  districts. 
(6)  The  Sovereign  of  Great  Britain  holds  the  execu- 
tive power  for  life  by  virtue  of  inheritance ;  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  holds  his  office  for  four  years 
by  election  of  electors  selected  by  popular  vote.      The 
veto  of  the  British  sovereign  is  final ;  that  of  the  Pres- 
ident may  be  set  aside  by  a  two-thirds  vote   of  both 
houses  of  Congress. 

236.  The  United  States. 

237.  Himalaya,  Altai,  Stanovoy,  Kuenlun,  Hindoo- 
koosh. 


146  ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

238.  Yang-tse-Kiang,  Lena,  Yenisei,  Amoor,  Obi. 

239.  Asiatic  Russia,  Chinese  Empire,  Japan,  Anam, 
Siam,  Burmah,  British  India,  Bokhara,  Turkestan, 
Afghanistan,  Beloochistan,  Persia,  Arabia,  Turkey. 

240.  Sea  of  Kara,  Behring  Sea,  Okhotsk,  Japan, 
Yellow,  Blue,  China,  Gulf  of  Siam,  Bay  of  Bengal, 
Arabian,  Persian,  Gulf  of  Aden,  Red,  Mediterranean, 
Archipelago,  Marmora,  Black,  Caspian. 

•  241.  Find  on  map  of  Asia. 

242.  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism.  Among  the 
features  of  the  former  is  the  transmigration  of  the  soul 
into  the  inferior  animals.  -Brahmanism  has  its  seat  in 
Hindostan.  Buddhism  enjoins  charity  toward  all  men 
and  the  conquest  of  self. 

243.  8 tan  is  the  Persian  word  for  country.  Chow 
in  Chinese  means  town  of  the  second  rank.  Ho  and 
Kiang  mean  river. 

244.  The  ground  is  perpetually  frozen  to  a  great 
depth,  while  the  summer  thaw  affects  only  the  sur- 
face. 

245.  Nordenskjold  (nor'den  shold)  the  Swedish  ex- 
plorer in  1878-9,  made  the  passage  from  the  Atlantic 
to  Behring  Strait  in  294  days. 

246.  Ivory  from  the  tusks  of  mammoths  (long  since 
extinct),  imbebbed  in  masses  of  ice,  has  been  found  in 
such  quantities  on  the  New  Siberia  Islands  and  nearthe 
mouths  of  Siberian  rivers,  as  to  furnish  profitable  em- 
ployment for  many  men. 

247.  Dried  figs,  raisins,  cotton,  opium,  wool,  goat's 
hair,  sponges,  and  leeches. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY.  147 

248.  They  are  nomads,  half-savage,  half-civilized, 
and  live  by  tending  their  flocks,  robbing  their  neigh- 
bors, and  plundering  the  helpless. 

2-49.  Estimated  area  4700000  square  miles;  popu- 
lation 480000000. 

250.  A  canal  700  miles  long,  constructed  a  thousand 
years  ago,  and  its  celebrated  wall  built  two  thousand 
years  ago,  1200  miles  long,  from  15  to  30  feet  high, 
and  so  thick  that  six  men  on  horse-back  can  ride 
abreast  upon  it. 

251.  It  is  not.  It  can  be  cultivated  in  the  south 
Atlantic  States ;  but  the  expense  of  its  preparation  for 
market,  where  labor  is  scarce,  would  not  justify  its 
culture.  The  labor  employed  in  the  production  of  tea 
in  China  costs  not  more  than  two  cents  a  day. 
No  article  of  commerce  requires  more  labor  than  tea ; 
and  hence,  the  restriction  of  its  culture  to  such  coun- 
tries as  furnish  the  cheapest  labor. 

252.  Its  leaves  afford  a  medicine,  its  seeds  a  favorite 
food,  its  tender  shoots  are  eaten  like  asparagus,  or 
made  into  pickles  and  confections,  a  great  variety  of 
utensils  are  made  of  its  stem,  paper  from  its  pulp,  and 
entire  dwellings  have  been  made  of  its  various  parts. 

253.  Their  non-progressiveuess  is  due  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  foreigners,  and  their  ingenuity  to  their  immense 
numbers  and  constant  struggle  for  food. 

254.  Three  cities  in  China  on  the  Yang-tse-Kiang 
are  so  closely  connected  that  they  form  one  city  with  a 
population  of  nearly  8,000,000. 


148  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   GEOGRAPHY. 

255.  Niphon,  Yesso,  Kiushiu,  and  Shilioku  together 
with  3850  smaller  islands  form  the  empire  of  Japan. 

256.  Dates,  tamarinds  frankincense,  gum-arabic, 
sponges,  coral,  ambergris,  tortoise-shell,  and  pearls. 

257.  Gutta-percha  is  the  coagulated  sap  of  a  tree 
(thetapan),  peculiar  to  the  East  Indies.  The  milky 
juice,  which  flows  from  incisions  made  in  the  tree  is 
thickened  by  boiling. 

258.  Sago  is  a  granulated  meal  obtained  from  the 
tissues  of  trunks  of  the  sago  palm,  by  a  process  of 
washing  and  sifting,  by  which  the  starchy  granules  are 
separated. 

259.  Nagasaki,  Hakodadi,  Simoda,  Tokio,  Osaka, 
Hioo-a,  Niigata,  and  Kana^iwa. 

260.  White  sandalwood,  ebony,  rosewood,  iron- 
wood,  red  dye-woods. 

261.  Sugar,  cotton,  flax,  rice,  tobacco,  opium,  in- 
digo, hemp,  gums,  spices,  and  drugs. 

262.  Opium  is  made  from  the  poppy.  Its  produc- 
tion is  confined  largely  to  India.  The  entire  proceeds 
of  the  tea  crop  are  said  to  be  insufficient  to  pay  for  the 
opium  annually  brought  into  China,  and  consumed  there. 

263.  These  fruits,  together  with  apricots,  nectar- 
rines,  cantelopes,  plums,  cherries,  damascenes,  and 
some  others,  seem  to  have  originated  among  the  arid 
plains  of  Persia  and  other  dry  countries,  and  in  such 
attain  their  highest  excellence. 

264.  As  a  place  of  exile  for  political  offenders. 

265.  At  Bakou  in  Georgia,  on  the  southwest  shores 
of  the  Caspian  Sea. 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS   OX   GEOGRAPHY.  149 

266.  Vast  marshy  plains  along  the  coast  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean. 

267.  Tulare,  lake  in  California;  Zealand,  an  island 
east  of  Denmark ;  Agulhas,  cape  in  southern  Africa; 
Chincha,  an  island  west  of  Peru;  Land's  End,  a  cape 
in  southwestern  England. 

268.  Its  compactness,  absence  of  navisjable  rivers, 
the  savage  nature  of  its  inhabitants,  its  ferocious 
beasts,  and  intensely  hot  climate. 

269.  Consult  map  of  Africa. 

270.  Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunis,  Tripoli,  Barca,  Fez- 
zan,  Egypt,  Nubia,  Soudan,  Abyssinia,  Zanguebar, 
Mozambique,  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  Transvaal,  Orange 
Free  State,  Upper  Guinea,  Senegambia,  Sierra  Leone, 
Liberia,  Lower  Guinea,  Sahara. 

271.  Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunis  and  Tripoli.  Pro- 
ducts, leather,  wool,  grain,  olives,  olive  oil,  and  trop- 
ical fruits. 

272.  Caucasian.  Language,  Arabic,  Ruling  class, 
Turks.     Prevailing  religion,  Mohammedan. 

273.  The  heat  by  day  rises  to  120^  Fahrenheit,  while 
the  nights  followino;  are  often  so  cold  that  water 
freezes. 

274.  An  American  settlement  of  emancipated  slaves 
established  in  1820  by  the  American  Colonization  So- 
ciety. It  is  an  independent  republic  on  the  western 
coast  of  Africa. 

275.  The  Suez  canal,  ninety-two  miles  long,  connects 
Port  Said  on  the  Mediterranean,  with  Suez  on  the  Red 


150  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

Sea.  It  has  a  depth  of  twenty-six  feet,  and  was 
opened  in  1869.  It  was  constructed  by  M.  Lesseps,  a 
French  engineer. 

276.  It  comprises  nearly  all  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  ocean.  Area  about  4,500,000  square  miles. 
Population  30,000,000. 

277.  In  area  Australia  is  about  the  same  as  the 
United  States.  The  climate  is  warmer,  with  less  rain. 
The  seasons  are  opposite.  Christmas  occurs  there  in 
mid-summer.  The  leaves  of  trees  are  leaden  gray  or 
brown  instead  of  green.  The  sun-  is  so  hot  and  the  air 
so  dry  that  the  narrow  leaves  arrange  themselves  ver- 
tically instead  of  horizontally,  and  are  alike  on  both 
sides.  Forests  are  seldom  found.  The  trees  are 
grouped  in  clusters  ;  they  cast  shadows  but  give  no 
shade.  There  are  no  aboriginal  quadrupeds  larger  than 
the  Dingo  dog  and  Kangaroo.  Many  of  the  animals 
are  pouched.  The  apteryx,  a  bird,  has  no  wings,  and 
the  lyre-bird  has  tail  feathers  which  resemble  a  harp. 

278.  They  are  a  sort  of  negro  without  wooly  heads, 
but  with  thick  lips  and  flat  noses.  In  color  they  vary 
from  chocolate-brown  to  sooty  black. 

279.  A,  366  days  ;  B,  364;  and  C,  365.  (See  ques- 
tion 112). 

280.  Lake  Michigan,  Strait  of  Maci^inaw,  Lake 
Huron,  St.  Clair  River,  Lake  St.  Clair,  Detroit  Eiver, 
Lake  Erie,  Welland Canal,  Lake  Ontario,  St.  Lawrence 
River,  Canal  around  St.  Lawrence  Rapids,  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  Atlantic  Ocean,  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  Medit- 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON   GEOGRAPHY.  15 1 

erranean  Sea,  Suez  Canal,  Red  Sea,  Strait  of  Babel- 
Mandeb,  Gulf  of  Aden,  Arabian  Sea,  Indian  Ocean, 
Strait  of  Malacca,  China  Sea,  Formosa  Channel,  and 
Blue  Sea. 

281.  (a)  Standard  time  is  the  uniformity  of  time 
for  all  places  situated  seven  and  one-half  degrees 
east  and  west  of  a  given  standard  meridian.  (6) 
It  was  adopted  by  nearly  all  the  American  rail- 
roads November  18,  1883.  (c)  Five  divisions  are  pro- 
vided for  the  United  States,  with  the  following  merid- 
ians passing  through  their  centers:  Intercolonial,  60th 
meridian;  Eastern,  75th  meridian ;  Central,  90th  me- 
ridian; Mountain,  105th  meridian;  Pacific,  120th 
meridian. 

282.  St.  Louis,  Memphis,  and  New  Orleans. 


QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAIi  GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  What  circumstances  prove  that  the  interior  of  the 
earth  is  highly  heated  ? 

2.  At  what  rate  does  the  heat  increase  as  we  descend  ? 

3.  Name  four  effects  upon  the  earth's  surface  pro- 
duced by  the  heated  interior. 

4.  (a)  What  are  Earthquakes?  (5)  How  mani- 
fested? (c)  When  most  frequent?  (d)  State  five 
causes,     (e)  Where  most  frequent? 

5.  What  places  on  the  earth's  surface  can  you 
mention  which  show  a  gradual  change  of  level  ? 

6.  Locate  the  regions  of  the  world  where  volcanoes 
are  most  numerous,  and  give  the  cause  for  such  loca- 
tion. 

7.  Name  the  principal  elements  composmg  the  earth's 
crust. 

8 .  (  a  )  Name  the  classes  of  rocks  according  to  origin . 
(b)  According  to  condition,  (c)  According  to  the 
presence  or  absence  of  fossils. 

9.  Define  Azoic  Time,  Paleozoic  Time,  Mesozoic 
Time,  Ccnozoic  Time. 

152 


QUESTIONS   ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  153 

10.  What  do  the  following  Ages  include:  Azoic, 
Silurian,  Devonian,  Carboniferous,  Reptilian,  Mam- 
malian, Age  of  Man  ? 

11.  What  are  continental  and  oceanic  islands?  Give 
two  examples  of  each. 

12.  State  the  difference  between  volcanic  and  corai 
islands  in  respect  to  origin,  distribution,  height,  and 
habitation. 

13.  Name  and  define  the  different  kinds  of  coral 
islands. 

14.  Explain  the  formation  of  plains  and  give  an  ex- 
ample of  each  method. 

15.  Describe  the  continents  in  respect  to  the  fol- 
lowing features:  height,  depression,  culminating 
points,  prolongation,  trend  of  mountains. 

16.  Name  and  locate  the  predominant  and  secondary 
mountain  systems  of  North  America. 

17.  What  connection  have  plains  with  civilization 
and  human  progress?  Cite  instances  and  reasons  to 
prove  your  answer. 

18.  Name  the  degrees  of  temperature  which  produce 
the  three  conditions  of  water,  as  liquid,  solid,  aud 
gaseous. 

19.  (a)  What  temperature  is  water  at  its  maximum 
density?  {b)  What  advantage  accrues  from  this 
physical  exception? 

20.  How  are  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  mitigated  by 
large  bodies  of  water? 

21.  State  two  causes  of  hot  springs. 


154  QUESTIONS    ON    PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

22.  ((f)  Whatisan  Artesian  Well?  (b)  Show  how 
such  wells  prove  the  heated  interior  of  the  earth. 

23.  Name  the  classes  into  which  springs  are  divided. 

24.  Define  the  different  kinds  of  springs. 

25.  Name  three  extensive  geyser-regions  of  the 
world. 

26.  What  is  the  usual  explanation  of  the  origin  of 
petroleum,  or  rock  or  coal  oil? 

27.  Name  five  inland  bodies  of  salt  water,  and  give 
your  reason  for  such  waters  being  salt. 

28.  Name  the  five  most  extensive  deltas  of  the 
world. 

29.  What  part  of  the  earth's  water  is  contained  by 
each  of  the  five  oceans  ? 

30.  Classify,  define,  and  give^  examples  of  the  in- 
dentations of  the  ocean. 

31.  Compare  the  waters  of  the  Baltic  Sea  with 
those  of  the  Mediterranean  with  respect  to  saltness  and 
state  your  reason. 

32.  What  are  the  three  movements  of  the  oceanic 
waters  ? 

33.  In  what  waters  do  waves  have  a  forward  motion? 
Explain. 

34.  Define  Tides-  By  what  caused?  How  dis- 
tinguished? 

35.  What  proof  can  you  give  for  the  influence  of 
the  moon  and  sun  in  causing  tides? 

36.  Explain  why  the  lunar  tide  is  greater  than  the 
solar  tide. 


QUESTIONS   ON"   PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  155 

37.  State  the  difference  between  spring  and  neap 
tides.     When  do  they  respectively  occur  ? 

38.  Where  is  the  "  cradle  of  the  tides?  " 

39.  State  the  origin  of  constant  currents  and  show 
how  these  causes  operate. 

40.  Describe  the  Gulf  Stream. 

41.  What  current  in  the  Pacific  resembles  the  Gulf 
Stream  ?  What  is  its  influence  ?  Why  inferior  to  the 
Gulf  Stream? 

42.  What  is  the  composition  of  the  atmosphere  ? 

43.  State  the  use  of  the  atmosphere  in  nature. 

44.  What  is  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  upon 
the  earth?     Is  this  uniform  in  all  parts  of  the  world? 

45.  (a)  Define  climate.      (6)  How  influenced ? 

46.  In  what  two  ways  is  the  atmosphere  warmed? 

47.  (a)  What  are  isothermal  lines?  (b)  Under 
what  circumstances  do  they  vary  greatly  from  the  par- 
allels? 

48.  State  the  rate  of  decrease  of  temperature  ob- 
served as  we  ascend  great  elevations  ? 

49.  Give  two  causes  for  a  decrease  of  temperature 
with  elevation  above  the  sea. 

50.  Explain  the  origin  of  winds. 

51.  How  is  the  direction  of  the  wind  affected  by  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  ? 

52.  Name  and  define  the  three  classes  of  winds. 

53.  Explain  the  cause  of  land  and  sea  breezes. 

54.  Where  are  the  "  Horse  latitudes?"  Why  so 
called? 


156  QUESTIONS   ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

55.  (a)  What  is  the  cause  of  desert  winds?  (6) 
Name  and  locate  five  from  the  Desert  of  Sahara. 

56.  Define  Monsoons  and  name  the  Monsoon  regions. 

57.  What  are  cyclones?  Mention  some  peculiarity 
about  the  direction  and  rotation  of  cyclones. 

58.  Name  five  circumstances  which  influence  evap- 
oration. 

59.  State  the  various  forms  of  precipitation  of 
moisture,  and  give  the  law  of  precipitation  with  respect 
to  time  and  distribution. 

x\  60.  What  are  the  offices  of  clouds  in  the  economy  of 
nature  ? 

61.  Classify  and  define  the  various  forms  of  clouds. 

62.  Where  and  what  is  the  greatest  annual  rainfall? 

63.  Give  an  explanation  of  the  cause  of  rain. 

64.  Explain  the  rotary  theory  of  the  formation  of 
hail. 

65.  Upon  which  side  of  the  Mississippi  does  drift 
tend  to  collect?  Explain  the  cause  of  this  tendency. 
~^^  66.  W^hy  is  no  delta  formed  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon  ? 

67.  About  what  is  the  actual  time  of  darkness  at  the 
North  Pole?     Explain  your  answer. 

68.  In  what  regions  are  the  followingr  believed  to 
have  originated  :  Wheat,  corn,  barley,  oats,  rye,  buck- 
wheat, potato? 

69.  What  conditions  are  requisite  for  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  forests  ? 

70.  Which  cereal  has  the  farthest  northern  range? 

71.  Name  the  principal  food  plants  of  the  tropics. 


ANSWERS  TO  QL  ESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL,  GEOGRAPHY.       157 

72.  From  what  is  chocolate  prepared? 

73.  Name  the  countries  which  excel  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  following  metals:  iron,  copper,  tin,  zinc, 
lead,  gold,  silver. 

74.  What  forms  the  basis  for  the  distribution  of 
animal  life  ?     Why  ? 

75.  What  difference  in  the  variety,  beauty,  and  size 
of  terrestrial  and  marine  fauna  may  be  observed  in 
passing  from  the  equator  toward  the  poles  ? 

76.  How  does  the  coal-field  area  of  the  United  States 
compare  with  that  of  Europe  ? 

77.  Explain  the  cause  of  the  limited  amount  of  rain 
in  Cahfornia,  Peru,  and  Bolivia  during  the  summer  and 
fall. 

78.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  solar  and  planetary 
systems  according  to  the  Nebular  hypothesis?  Who 
was  its  author  ?     To  wdiat  credence  is  it  entitled  ? 

79.  What  is  the  zodiac?     Into  what  parts  divided? 

80.  Name  the  planets  in  their  order  from  the  sun. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    OX    PHYSICAIi 
GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  The  increased  heat  of  the  crust  as  we  go  below 
the  surface  and  the  escape  of  lava  and  other  heated 
substances  from  volcanoes. 

2.  About  1°  Fahrenheit  for  every  55  feet  of  de- 
scent. 


158      ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

3.  1st,  Volcanoes;  2ikI,  Earthquakes;  3rd,  Non- 
Volcanic  igneous  eruptions;  4th,  Gradual  elevations  or 
subsidences. 

4.  (a)  Earthquakes  are  shakings  of  the  earth's  crust. 
(5)  1st,  A  gentle  wave;  2nd,  An  upward  motion; 
3rd,  A  rotary  motion,  (c)  1st,  In  winter;  2nd,  At 
night;  3rd,  During  new  and  full  moon.  (tZ)  1st, 
Strain  produced  by  contraction  of  the  earth's  crust ; 
2nd,  Forces  that  eject  the  matter  from  volcanoes ;  3rd, 
Generation  of  gases  in  the  interior;  4th,  Falling  in  of 
masses  of  rock  from  the  roofs  of  subterranean  caverns  ; 
5th,  By  the  tidal  wave  of  the  pasty  interior,  (e^  They 
are  most  frequent  in  volcanic  regions. 

5.  The  eastern  coast  of  America  from  Labrador  to 
New  Jersey  is  rising.  The  bed  of  the  Pacific  in  the 
central  part  is  sinking.  Portions  of  the  Andes  are 
rising. 

6.  Along  the  shores  of  the  Pacific;  on  the  islands  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean ;  between  the  northern  and  southern 
hemispheres.  This  is  due  to  the  weakness  of  the  crust 
in  such  places,  caused  by  sinking  oceans. 

7.  Oxygen,  which  constitutes  nearly  one-half ,  silicon, 
aluminium,  magnesium,  calcium,  potassium,  sodium, 
iron,  and  carbon. 

8.  (a)  Igneous  rocks,  those  which  were  ejected  in  a 
melted  condition,  and  afterward  cooled.  Aqueous 
rocks,  those  deposited  as  sediment  by  water.  Met- 
amorphic  rocks,  those  originally  deposited  in  layers, 
but  afterwards  so  changed  by  heat  as  to  lose  all  traces 
of  stratification,     (h)  Stratified  rocks,  those  arranged 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.       159 

in  laj^ers  by  the  action  of  •U'ater.  Aqueous  rocks  be- 
long to  this  cLiss.  Unstratified  rocks,  those  destitute 
of  any  arrangement.  Igneous  and  j\Ietamorphic  rocks 
belong  to  this  class,  (c)  Fossiliferous  and  Non-fos- 
siliferous. 

9.  Azoic  Time  includes  the  period  before  vegetable 
or  animal  life  appeared  on  the  globe.  Paleozoic  Time, 
meaning  ancient  life,  included  the  time  when  animal 
and  vegetable  life  bore  but  little  resemblance  to  that 
which  we  now  see.  Mesozoic  life,  meaning  middle  life, 
was  the  period  of  huge  animals,  when  both  animal  and 
vegetable  life  approached  nearer  to  the  species  now 
existing  than  to  the  relics  of  preceding  ages.  Cenozoic 
Time,  or  recent  life,  included  the  time  when  the  ani- 
mals and  plants  bore  close  resemblance  to  those  now 
living. 

10.  The  Azoic  Age  includes  all  time  prior  to  the 
advent  of  life  u[)on  the  globe.  The  Silurian  Age  is 
characterized  by  types  of  life  of  the  simplest  construc- 
tion, the  animals  were  all  marine  and  belong  to  the 
three  classes,  mollusks,  radiates,  and  articulates. 
Devonian  Age,  or  Age  of  Fishes.  The  fishes  which 
characterize  this  age  belong  to  two  classes,  sharJcs  and 
ganoids,  the  latter  were  of  the  type  of  the  sturgeon  and 
garpike.  Carboniferous  Age  was  the  coal-producing 
ao-e.  Dense  forests  of  ferns  and  other  trees  covered 
the  earth  from  pole  to  pole.  The  climate  was  warm, 
moist,  and  equable.  Then  followed  subsidences  and 
upheavals  ;  the  forests  were  swept  away,  submerged 
and  covered  with  mud  and  silt.     Thus  was  formed  the 


160      ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

immense  coal  beds  of  the  continents.  The  Reptilian 
Age  was  the  age  of  enormous  reptiles  of  the  lizard 
kind,  such  as  the  ichthyosaurus  (fish-lizard),  a  cold- 
blooded, air-breathing,  and  carnivorous  monster,  hav- 
ing the  teeth  of  a  crocodile  and  the  head  of  a  lizard, 
and  ih.Q plesiosaurus  (lizard-like),  a  monstrous,  though 
less  formidable  animal  than  the  ichthyosaurus.  The 
Mammalian  Age  was  the  period  of  enormous  herbiv- 
orous animals,  whose  skeletons  are  found  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  Among  these  were  the  mammoth^ 
whose  r,  mains  are  found  imbedded  in  the  frozen  gTav el 
of  Siberia ;  the  mastodon,  with  tusks  eleven  feet  in 
length;  the  megatherium,  an  animal  resembling  the 
sloth;  the  mylodon  and  the  deinotherium.  The  age  of 
Man  is  the  present  age. 

11.  Continental  islands  are  such  as  lie  near  the  shores 
of  continents,  and  have  the  same  general  construction. 
Example:  West  Indies,  Phillippines.  Oceanic  islands 
are  those  in  the  ocean,  having  no  connection  with  the 
continents.     Example  :  Sandwich,  New  Zealand. 

12.  Volcanic  islands  are  formed  mainly  by  the 
summits  of  submarine  volcanoes,  either,  extinct  or 
active.  The  coral  island  is  a  limestone  formation,  de- 
rived from  countless  skeletons  of  minute  polyps  that 
once  lived  below  the  surface  of  the  waters.  Volcanic 
islands  are  scattered  over  the  globe,  while  coral  islands 
are  found  in  warm,  shallow,  tropical  waters,  remote 
from  active  volcanoes.  Coral  islands  rarely  rise  above 
12  feet,  on  which  account  few  of  them  furnish  com- 
fortable habitation  for  man. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.       161 

13.  1st.  Atolls,  or  Lagoon  islands,  consist  of  a  ring 
of  coral  inclosing  a  lagoon  —  a  portion  of  the  ocean. 
2nd.  Encircling  reefs  are  the  same  as  Atolls  except 
that  one  or  more  islands  lie  within  the  lagoon.  3rd. 
Fringing  reefs  are  narrow  ribbons  of  coral  rock  lying 
near  the  shore  of  an  ordinary  island.  4th.  Barrier 
reefs  are  usually  broad  and  lie  some  distance  from  the 
shore. 

14.  Plains  owe  their  existence  to  three  causes;  viz., 
1st.  The  absence  of  wrinkles  in  the  folds  of  the  crust, 
as  the  plains  of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  etc.  2nd.  Such  as 
were  formed  by  marine  deposits  along  the  shores  of 
receding  oceans,  as  the  plains  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 
3rd.  Alluvial  plains  deposited  by  the  fresh  water  of 
rivers  and  lakes,  as  the  alluvial  bottoms  along  the  lower 
Mississippi. 

15.  1st.  The  greatest  elevations  of  the  continents  are 
nearly  all  found  in  tropical  regions.  2nd.  The  con- 
tinents have  in  general  high  borders  and  low  interiors. 
3rd.  The  highest  points  of  land  lie  out  of  the  center  of 
the  continents.  4th.  The  greatest  prolongation  cor- 
responds to  the  predominant  mountain  system.  5th. 
The  prevailing  trends  of  mountain  masses  agree  with 
the  direction  of  the  coast  line. 

16.  The  predominant  mountain  system  of  North 
America  extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama.  It  consists  of  two  nearly  parallel  mountain 
systems ;  viz. ,  the  Eocky  Mountains,  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
and  the  Cascade  ranges.  The  secondary  system  ex- 
tends from  Georgia  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  comprises 

11 


162      ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

the  Appalachian  system,  the  Plateau  of  Labrador,  the 
Height  of  Land  and  the  Arctic  Plateau. 

17.  River-plains  have  ever  been  the  chosen  seats  of 
settled  industry,  progress,  and  civilization.  The  popu- 
lous centers  of  civilization  of  antiquity,  as  Babylon, 
Nineveh,  Thebes,  Rome,  as  well  as  modern  sites  of  in- 
dustry, are  found  in  the  river-plains  of  both  continents. 
These  regions  possess  special  adaptations  and  facilities 
for  agriculture,  commerce,  and  the  arts. 

18.  Fresh  water  freezes  at  32°  Fahr.  Ocean  water 
freezes  at  26V2°  Fahr.     At  212°  Fahr.  water  boils. 

19.  (a)  Water  reaches  its  greatest  weight,  or  dens- 
ity, at  39.2°  Fahr.  (b)  If  it  contracted  below  this 
temparature,  say  lower  than  32°,  the  ice  first  formed 
would  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  so  continue,  until  our 
rivers  and  lakes  would  become  a  frozen  mass  which 
the  greatest  heat  of  summer  would  not  thaw. 

20.  Large  bodies  of  water  take  in  more  heat  while 
warming,  and  give  out  more  heat  while  cooling  than 
any  other  substance.  Again,  the  constant  movement 
of  large  bodies  of  water  brings  to  the  surface  waters  of 
a  different  temperature,  which  modify  the  adjacent 
lands. 

21.  Hot  springs  near  active  volcanoes  may  owe 
their  heat  to  their  beds  being  in  the  vicinity  of  recent!}^ 
ejected  lava.  If  remote  from  volcanic  disturbance 
their  high  temperature  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  great 
depth  of  their  reservoirs. 

22.  (rt)  An  Artesian  well  is  one  bored  into  the 
earth  until  a  subterranean  basin  is  reached.     The  water 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.        163 

rushes  up  the  bore  in  consequence  of  the  hydrostatic 
pressure.  The  temparature  of  waters  issuing  from 
Artesian  wells  is  always  proportional  to  the  depth, 
showing  a  nearly  constant  increase  of  1°  for  every  55 
feet  of  descent. 

23.  Springs  are  divided  into  the  following  classes: 
constant,  variable,  periodical,  thermal,  mineral  and 
petroleum. 

24.  Constant  springs  flow  continually  from  sources 
in  subterranean  lakes  so  vast  that  the  constant  flow 
cannot  drain  them  during  the  drycst  seasons. 

Variable  springs  burst  forth  after  heavy  rains  and 
diminish  as  the  dry  season  approaches. 

Periodical  springs  swell  and  subside  at  stated 
periods.  Their  cause  is  usually  attributed  to  the 
siphon-shape  of  the  outlet  tube. 

Thermal  springs  send  forth  water  from  60°  Fahr.  to 
the  boiling  point.  Beyond  this  heat  the  spring  is 
termed  a  geyser. 

Mineral  springs  are  such  as  send  forth  water  so 
strongly  impregnated  with  mineral  matter  as  to  sensibly 
affect  the  animal  system.  The  five  principal  classes 
designated  according  to  their  ingredients  are.  Chaly- 
beate (iron).  Saline  (salt),  Silicious  (flint),  Calcareous 
(lime),  and  Sulphurous  springs. 

Petroleum  springs,  from  which  we  obtain  our  coal 
oil  are  scattered  all  over  the  globe. 

25.  In  Iceland  over  100  geysers  occur  in  a  limited 
area.  In  New  Zealand,  near  the  volcano  of  Tongariro, 
over  1000  mud  springs,  hot  springs  and  geysers  burst 


164      ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

from  the  ground.  In  Yellowstone  Park,  "Wyoming 
Ty.,  are  some  of  the  most  magnificent  geysers  in  the 
world. 

26.  The  oil  is  derived  from  the  slow  decomposition, 
in  the  presence  of  heat,  of  various  animal  and  vegetable 
matters,  which  are  found  in  the  strata  of  nearly  all  the 
geological  formations. 

27.  Caspian  Sea,  Dead  Sea,  Aral  Sea,  Lake  Urum- 
iyah,  in  Persia,  and  Great  Salt  Lake,  in  Utah.  These 
lakes  and  seas  have  inlets  but  no  outlets.  All  rivers 
have  more  or  less  salt  dissolved  from  the  washings  of 
the  crust.  Since  all  loss  of  waters  from  lakes  having 
no  outlets  is  by  evaporation,  the  quantity  of  salt  will 
continually  accumulate  in  such  bodies  of  water. 

28.  The  Mississippi,  the  Nile,  the  Tigi-is,  the 
Euphrates,  and  the  Zambesi. 

29.  The  Pacific  contains  about  l,  the  Atlantic,  about 
|,  the  Indian,  about  |,  the  Antarctic,  about  yV>  the 
Arctic  about  -^\  of  the  waters  of  the  earth. 

30.  1st.  Inland  Seas,  or  those  surrounded  by  a  nearly 
continuous  land  border;  as  the  Baltic  and  Mediter- 
ranean Seas. 

2nd.  Border  Seas,  or  those  isolated  from  the  ocean 
by  peninsulas  and  island  chains ;  as  the  Caribbean  and 
North  Seas. 

3rd.  Gulfs  or  Bays,  or  broad  expansions  of  the  ocean 
extending  into  the  land ;  as  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  the  Bay 
of  Bengal. 

31.  The  Mediterranean  contains  more  salt  propor- 
tionally  than    the    Baltic,   because,   being   connected 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.   1G5 

with  the  ocean  by  a  narrow  channel,  it  loses  more 
of  its  waters  by  evaporation  than  by  outflow,  while  the 
Baltic,  receiving  the  waters  of  powerful  rivers  is  fresher 
than  the  ocean. 

32.  The  three  movements  of  the  oceanic  waters  are 
waves,  tides,  and  currents. 

33.  In  shallow  water  waves  have  a  forward  motion. 
In  such  waters  the  motion  at  th^  bottom  is  checked, 
and  the  top  curls  over  and  breaks,  producing  what  are 
called  breakers. 

34.  Tides  are  the  alternate  rise  and  fall  of  the  ocean 
twice  in  a  lunar  day  (24  hrs.  and  51  min.),  caused  by 
the  attraction  of  the  sun  and  moon.  The  rising  of  the 
water  is  called  Jlood  tide  ;  when  it  has  attained  its  great- 
est height  high  tide  occurs.  Remaining  stationary  for 
a  few  minutes,  the  water  falls,  called  ebb  tide,  reach- 
ing the  lowest  point  in  about  six  hours,  loio  tide  occurs. 

35.  In  the  deep  ocean  the  passage  of  the  moon  is 
always  followed  by  high  water.  The  shape  of  the 
ocean  basin  often  prevents  this  occurring  immediately 
after  the  passage  of  the  moon.  Again,  the  highest 
tides  result  when  the  sun  and  moon  act  simultaneously 
on  the  same  hemisphere  of  the  earth. 

36.  The  sun's  distance  from  the  earth  being  400 
times  that  of  the  moon,  its  attraction  at  any  time  is 
almost  the  same  on  every  part  of  the  earth,  there  being 
a  difference  of  only  -^^^-^  its  whole  attraction  on  oppo- 
site sides.  If  the  sun's  attraction  were  the  same  upon 
every  part  of  the  earth  there  would  be  no  tendency  to 
disturb  the  waters  upon  any  one  side,  i.e.,  no  tides  due 


1  06       ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

to  its  influence.  The  difference  between  the  moon's 
attraction  on  opposite  sides  of  the  earth  is  jg-  its  entire 
attraction,  equal  to  (^-^  of  j\j)  -^-^^j  of  the  sun's  attrac- 
tion. The  fraction  jlj  is  the  force  of  the  moon's  en- 
tire attraction  compared  to  that  of  the  sun.  The 
moon's  influence  in  creating  a  tide  is  2¥V5"^6"oV'o '  ^^ 
more  than  twice  the  sun's;  and  the  tides  are  due  to 
difference  of  attraction  on  different  sides  of  the  earth. 

37.  Spring  tides  are  caused  by  the  combined  attrac- 
tions of  the  sun  and  moon  on  the  same  portions  of  the 
earth;  ITeap  tides,  by  their  opposite  attractions. 
Spring  tides  occur  twice  during  every  revolution  of  the 
moon,  once  Sit  full,  and  once  at  new  moon.  Neap  tides 
occur  twice  daring  each  revolution  of  the  moon,  when 
the  sun  and  moon  are  90^  apart,  or  as  we  say,  when  the 
moon  is  in  quadrature. 

38.  In  the  great  southern  water  areas,  where  the 
Pacific,  the  Indian  and  the  Antarctic  are  merged  in  one. 

39.  The  two  principal  causes  of  oceanic  currents  are 
the  sun's  heat  and  ths  earth's  rotation.  The  evapora- 
tion constantly  going  on  in  the  equatorial  regions  tends 
to  lower  the  level  of  the  waters  in  those  latitudes, 
which,  added  to  the  influence  of  the  sun  in  lessening 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  waters  about  the  equator, 
produce  a  constant  tendency  of  the  colder  and  warmer 
waters  to  commingle.  The  polar  waters  flow  toward 
the  equator  to  equalize  the  pressure,  thus  displacing  the 
warmer  waters  which  flow  toward  the  poles.  If  the 
earth  were  at  rest  the  currents  would  flow  north  and 
south,  to  and  from  the  equator;  but  the  rotation  of  the 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.       167 

earth  from  west  to  east  causes  currents  flowing  toward 
the  poles  to  be  deflected  toward  the  east,  while  those 
flowing  toward  the  equator  are  turned  toward  the  west. 

40.  The  Gulf  Stream  is  an  ocean  river  from  10  to 
50  miles  wide,  and  500  fathoms  deep,  of  a  dark  indigo 
color,  originating  in  the  warm  waters  of  the  equatorial 
regions.  Its  velocity  is  from  four  to  six  miles  an  hour, 
and  so  great  is  its  latent  heat  that  after  flowing  3000 
miles  to  the  north,  it  preserves,  even  in  winter,  a  sum- 
mer heat. 

41.  The  Japan  Current  in  the  Pacific  corresponds  to 
the  Gulf  Stream  of  the  Atlantic.  Its  warm  waters 
soften  the  climate  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  the  north- 
west coast  of  America.  On  account  of  the  shallowness 
of  Behring  Strait  through  which  it  cannot  pass,  it  has 
neither  the  velocity  nor  sharpness  of  outline  of  the 
Gulf  Stream. 

42.  The  atmosphere  is  composed  of  nitrogen  and 
oxygen,  in  the  proportion,  by  weight,  of  77  per  cent  of 
nitrogen  to  23  per  cent  of  oxygen.  To  these  are 
added  a  small  quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  about  five  or 
six  parts  in  every  10000  of  air. 

43.  Oxygen  supports  combustion  and  respiration, 
and  is  thus  necessary  to  animal  life.  Carbonic  acid, 
composed  of  oxygen  and  carbon,  is  the  source  from 
which  vegetation  derives  its  woody  fibre,  and  is  thus 
necessary  to  plant  life.  In  respiration  animals  take  in 
oxygen  and  give  out  carbonic  acid;  plants,  in  sunlight, 
take  in  carbonic  acid  and  give  out  oxygen. 


]  68      ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHrSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

44.  The  atmosphere  exerts  a  pressure  of  15  pounds 
on  every  square  inch  of  surface.  This  pressure  is  not 
uniform  in  all  parts  of  the  earth  at  the  same  level. 
The  greatest  pressure  is  in  latitude  35°  north  and  south. 

45.  (a)  Climate  is  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere 
as  regards  heat  or  cold,  moisture  or  dryness,  healthi- 
ness or  unhealthiness.  (b)  It  is  influenced  by  latitude, 
altitude,  location  with  respect  to  mountains,  plains, 
bodies  of  water,  ocean  currents,  and  prevailing  winds. 

4G.  1st.  By  direct  absorption  of  the  sun's  rays 
passing  through  it.  2nd.  By  actual  contact,  reflection, 
or  radiation  from  the  heated  earth. 

47.  (a)  Isothermal  lines  connect  places  on  the  earth 
which  have  the  same  mean  annual  temperature,  (b)  In 
those  parts  of  the  ocean  traversed  by  warm  currents 
flowing  toward  the  poles,  isothermal  lines  are  deflected 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  currents  ;  while  cold  cur- 
rents or  mountain  reo;ions  cause  a  marked  bending  of 
those  lines  toward  the  equator, 

48.  The  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  decreases 
with  the  elevation  above  the  sea  about  3°  Fahr.  for  every 
1000  feet. 

49.  Increased  cold  in  elevation  is  caused  as  follows  : 
1st.  Since  the  earth  receives  most  of  its  heat  from  the 
earth's  surface,  .the  farther  we  go  from  the  surface  up- 
ward, the  colder  it  grows. 

2nd.  The  diminished  humidity  and  density  of  the  air 
at  great  elevations  prevents  its  absorbing  either  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun,  or  those  reflected  from  the  earth. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.       169 

50.  Winds  are  caused  by  atmospheric  heat  disturb- 
ances and  the  rotation  of  the  earth.  As  the  air  in  the 
equatorial  regions  becomes  heated,  it  expands,  becomes 
lighter,  rises  and  its  place  is  supplied  by  the  inrushing 
cold  air.  The  ascending  currents  continue  rising  until 
they  reach  a  stratum  of  air  of  nearly  the  same  density 
as  their  own,  when  they  spread  laterally  in  all  direc- 
tions, filling  the  areas  where  the  air  has  been  rarefied 
by  lateral  surface  currents. 

51.  But  for  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  the  wind 
would  blow  due  north  and  south  from  the  equator. 
Winds  originating  at  the  equator  with  a  velocity  of  1000 
miles  an  hour,  will,  as  they  move  northward  or  south- 
ward like  the  currents,  move  faster  than  the  slower 
moving  regions  of  the  earth,  and  thus  flow  toward  the 
northeast  and  southeast.  Winds  originating  at  the 
poles,  moving  with  a  slow  velocity,  will  as  they 
approach  the  faster  moving  equatorial  regions  lag  be- 
hind, and  so  blow  toward  the  southwest  north  of  the 
equator,  and  northwest  south  of  the  equator. 

52.  1st.  Constant,  those  which  blow  in  the  same 
direction  throughout  the  year.  2nd.  Periodical,  those 
which  blow  alternately  in  opposite  directions.  3rd. 
Variable,  those  which  blow  irregularly;  these  are  in- 
fluenced by  local  causes. 

53.  The  land,  by  reflection  of  the  sun's  rays,  becomes 
warmer  than  the  sea  during  the  day;  this  causes  an 
ascending  current,  whose  place  is  supplied  by  the  cool 
air  from  the  sea  rushing  in.  This  is  called  the  sea 
breeze.     During  the  night  the  land  cools  off  more  rap- 


170   ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

idly  than  the  water;  the  ascending  current  then  rises 
from  the  water  and  a  breeze  called  the  land  hreeze  sets 
toward  the  sea  from  the  land. 

54.  The  Calms  of  Cancer  in  the  Atlantic  are  thus 
known.  Formerly,  when  vessels  from  New  England 
laden  with  horses  for  the  West  Indies  were  beset  by 
calms  in  these  regions,  it  became  necessary  to  throw 
many  of  these  animals  overboard  for  want  of  water. 

55.  (a)  Deserts  by  reason  of  the  absence  of  water, 
cool  and  heat  more  rapidly  than  other  portions  of  land. 
Currents  alternately  blow  to  and  from  the  heated  area 
with  great  violence,  (h)  The  Etesian  Wind  from  July 
to  September  blows  over  the  Mediterranean ;  The  Har- 
mattan  blows  over  the  coast  of  Guinea;  The  Khamsin 
blows  over  Egypt ;  The  Sirocco  blows  over  Italy  ;  The 
Solano  blows  over  Spain. 

56.  Monsoons  are  a  species  of  land  and  sea  breezes, 
which  blow  in  a  certain  direction  during  a  part  of  the 
year  and  in  an  opposite  direction  during  the  remainder 
of  the  year.  The  three  principal  monsoon  regions  are 
the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  the  Mexican 
Gulf   and  Caribbean  Sea. 

57.  Cyclones  are  storms  moving  in  o.  parabolic  path 
about  a  calm,  circular  center.  In  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere the  rotation  of  the  whirl  is  in  a  direction  con- 
trary to  the  hands  of  a  watch,  south  of  the  equator 
the  whirl  is  with  the  hands  of  a  watch. 

58.  1st.  The  temperature  of  the  atmosphere.  2nd. 
The  quantity  of  vapor  in  the  air.  3rd.  Amount  of 
atmospheric  pressure.  4th.  Extent  of  exposed  sur- 
face.    5th.  The  renewal  of  th'^  ^ir 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.       171 

69.  Moisture  is  deposited  from  the  air  in  the  form  of 
rain,  fog,  mist,  dew,  cloud,  sleet,  hail,  and  snow. 
Precipitation  can  occur  only  when  the  air  is  cooled 
beJcno  the  temperature  of  its  dew  point.  The  amount 
of  precipitation  decreases  as  we  pass  from  the  equator 
to  the  poles,  and  from  the  coasts  of  the  continents 
toward  the  interior. 
V  60.  Clouds  temper  the  climate,  protect  the  earth 
from  too  much  heat  in  summer  and  keep  it  warm- in 
winter.  By  their  constant  motion,  they  keep  the 
atmosphere  stirred  up  ;  and  thus  is  carried  off  those 
noxious  exlialations  that  would  otherwise  render  the  air 
unfit  for  animal  existence.  Finally,  they  hold  in 
minute  particles  the  vast  reservoirs  of  vapor  which, 
when  aggregating,  exceed  a  certain  size,  fall  to  the  earth 
as  rain. 

61.  The  principal  forms  of  clouds  are  classified  as 
follows:  The  Cirrus  cloud,  a  fleecy,  feathery  mass  of 
condensed  vapor,  high  above  the  earth;  the  Cumulus 
cloud,  a  mountainous,  rounded  mass  of  dense  vapor, 
formed  in  the  lower  regions  of  the  atmosphere ;  the 
Stratus  cloud,  a  stratified  collection  of  horizontal  sheets, 
forming  the  base  of  the  other  clouds ;  the  Nimbus 
cloud,  a  dark,  stormy  mass  of  vapor  from  which  rain 
falls. 

62.  At  Cherrapongi,  a  station  among  the  Himalaj^as, 
in  India,  where  an  annual  rainfall  of  610  inches  has 
been  recorded.  The  greatest  rainfall  in  the  New 
World  is  280  inches,  at  Maranham,  Brazil. 


172      ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY* 

63.  When,  from  any  cause,  as  the  sweeping  down 
from  the  mountains  into  the  warm  valleyg  of  cold  blasts, 
or  tlie  rising  of  warm  winds  up  the  mountain  slopes, 
clouds  of  different  temperature  are  brought  in  contact, 
unable  to  hold  the  whole  amount  of  moisture  in  solu- 
tion, they  part  with  a  portion  of  their  vapor  in  the 
form  of  rain.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  capacity 
of  clouds  to  retain  their  moisture  diminishes  faster  than 
their  temperature. 

64.  Snowflakes,  which  form  the  nuclei  of  hail  are 
supposed  to  whirl  around  a  horizontal  axis,  and  be- 
tween two  horizontal  layers  of  cloud  —  the  upper  one 
of  snow,  the  lower  one  of  rain.  As  the  particles  pass 
through  the  successive  strata  of  snow  and  rain,  alter- 
nate coatings  of  ice  and  snow  are  formed,  until  at  last 
they  are  hurled  to  the  ground  as  hail. 

65.  Upon  the  west  bank.  This  is  due  to  the  diurnal 
motion  of  the  earth. 

66.  The  sediment  carried  down  the  Amazon  is  swept 
away  by  the  equatorial  current. 

67.  About  82  days,  or  from  November  10th  to  Febru- 
ary 1st.  Owing  to  refraction  and  the  breadth  of  the  sun's 
disc,  twilight  lasts  from  September  21,  to  November 
10,  and  from  the  same  cause,  twilight  again  begins 
February  1st. 

68.  Wheat,  in  Tartary  ;  corn,  in  America;  barley,  in 
Tartary;  oats,  in  the  region  of  the  Caucasus  ;  rye,  in 
Persia;  buckwheat,  in  northern  China:  the  potato,  in 
Chili  or  Peru. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.       173 

60.  An  abundance  of  regularly  distributed  rain 
throughout  the  year. 

70.  Barley  is  grown  farther  north  than  any  other 
grain. 

71.  Eice,  dates,  cocoa-nuts,  bananas  and  plantains, 
cassava,  bread-fruit,  sago,  and  yams. 

72.  From  the  seed  of  the  cocoa-tree. 

73.  Iron,  Great  Britain;  Copper,  Chili ;  Tin,  Eng- 
land ;  Zinc,  Germany;  Lead,  Spain;  Gold,  the  United 
States;  Silver,  the  United  States. 

74.  The  distribution  of  heat,  moisture,  and  vegeta- 
tion forms  the  basis  for  the  distribution  of  animal  life, 
because  animals  derive  their  sustenance  either  directly 
or  indirecty  from  plants. 

75.  As  a  rule,  the  luxuriance  and  variety  of  terres- 
trial animal  life  decrease  as  we  pass  from  the  equator 
toward  the  poles.  This  law  of  distribution  is  reversed 
in  marine  animal  life,  both  the  number  and  size  of  the 
species  increasing  from  the  equator  toward  the  poles. 

,    76.  The  area  of  the  coal  fields  of  the  United  States 
is  over  six  times  as  great  as  that  of  Europe. 

77.  The  prevailing  winds  of  California  during  the 
summer  and  fall  are  from  the  east,  which  are  deprived 
of  their  moisture  in  crossing  the  continent.  The  Pa- 
cific shores  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  are  rainless  for  a  simi- 
lar reason. 

78.  The  Nebular  hypothesis  assumes  that  the  matter 
of  which  the  bodies  belonging  to  the  solar  and  planetary 
systems  is  composed,  once  existed  in  space  as  a  great, 
chaotic,  nebulous  and  highly  heated  mass   of  gas  or 


174     ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

vapor,  endowed  with  a  kind  of  whirlpool  motion,  which, 
gradually  condensing  through  the  mutual  attraction  of 
its  particles,  formed  the  countless  suns;  that  the 
planets  were  formed  by  the  condensation  of  rings  of 
matter  successively  thrown  off  by  the  central  mass, 
and  the  satellites  by  the  condensation  of  matter  thrown 
off  in  like  manner  by  the  planets.  It  was  invented  by 
Laplace,  a  French  astronomer,  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
last  century.  All  recent  observations  and  discoveries 
seem  to  prove  its  correctness. 

79.  An  imaginary  belt  in  the  heavens,  extending  nine 
degrees  on  each  side  of  the  ecliptic,  or  celestial  equa- 
tor. Within  its  limits  are  contained  the  orbits  of  all 
the  planets  except  some  of  the  minor  planets.  It  is 
divided  into  twelve  parts,  called  signs,  of  30°  each,  as 
follows:  Aries,  Taurus,  Gemini,  Cancer,  Leo,  Virgo, 
Libra,  Scorpio,  Sagittarius,  Capricornus,  Aquarius, 
Pisces. 

80.  Mercury,  Yenus,  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
Uranus,  and  Neptune. 


QTJESTIOXS  OX  UXITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

1.  "WTiat  theories  have  been  advanced  regarding  the 
origin  of  the  American  Indians  ? 

2.  What  evidence  exists  which  indicates  the  occu- 
pancy of  this  continent  by  a  civilized  race  before  the 
Indians  ? 

3.  Give  a  brief  description  of  the  American  Indians 
as  they  have  manifested  themselves  to  the  "Whites. 

4.  What  claim  to  the  discovery  of  America  prior  to 
Columbus  is  now  very  generally  accepted? 

5.  Name  some  circumstances  that  directly  contrib- 
uted to  the  discover}'  of  the  Western  Continent. 

6.  What  peculiar  characteristics  did  Columbus 
possess  which  fitted  him  for  his  great  work? 

7.  Kame  in  order  the  powers  to  which  Columbus  ap- 
plied for  aid. 

8.  (a)  How  many  voyages  to  the  New  World  were 
made  by  Columbus?  (&)  Name  discoveries  made  in 
each  voyage. 

9.  How  came  this  country  to  be  called  America? 

10.  Why  were  the  Indians  so  named' 

175 


176  QUESTIONS    ON    UNITED    STATES    HISTORY. 

11.  What  two  circumstances  dispelled  the  idea  of  the 
Spaniards  that  the  lands  discovered  by  Columbus  were 
the  Indies? 

12.  Show  how  the  promises  made  to  Columbus  by 
the  Sovereigns  of  Spain  compared  with  his  rewards. 
^^3.  Name  ten  Spanish  discoverers  and  explorers,  and 
after  each  write  the  name  of  his  most  important  dis- 
covery or  exploration,  with  date  of  each. 

14.  (a)  What  territory  of  the  New  World  was 
claimed  by  England?  (5)  Upon  what  Avere  these 
claims  based? 

15.  Name  the  prominent  Enghsh  explorers  of  the 
16th  century. 

16.  What  unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  by  Eng- 
land to  colonize  North  America  in  the  16th  century? 

17.  Locate   the  claims  made  by   France,  and  state 
what  means  were  employed  to  confirm  these  claims. 
^-■'18.  Name  five  French  explorers   with  the  date  and 
location  of  their  explorations. 

19.  Where  and  by  whom  were  French  settlements 
made  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century? 
-^'  20.  What  claim    did    Holland   make  in   America? 
Upon  what  based,  and  what  was  the  extent? 

21.  What  motives  may  be  assigned  for  the  first  at- 
tempt of  the  French  to  plant  colonies  in  Florida  and 
Carolina  ? 

22.  Give  reasons  for  the  long  time  intervening  be- 
tween the  discover}''  and  settlement  of  North  America. 

23.  (a)  What  was  the  route  from  England  to 
America  during  the  16th  century?  (^b)  How  and  by 
whom  was  the  passage  shortened,  and  to  what  extent? 


QUESTIONS   ON   UNITED   STATES   HISTORY.  177 

'^4.  Give  names  and  dates  of  the  first  permanent 
settlements  made  by  the  nations  engaged  in  exploring 
the  future  United  States. 

/"^5.  {a)  "What  two  companies  were  formed  in  Eng- 
land for  colonizing  America  ?  ( 5 )  What  were  their 
respective  territorial  boundaries  ? 

26.  Relate  the  circumstances  which  determined  the 
site  of  the  first  permanent  English  settlement. 

27.  Why  were  the  first  settlei^  at  Jamestown  poorly 
fitted  for  pioneer  life? 

28.  What  delusion  among  the  people  of  Jamestown 
impaired  the  success  of  their  first  year's  settlement? 

29.  For  what  were  the  three  charters  granted  to 
Jamestov^n  remarkable?     Give  their  dates. 

30.  When  was  the  "  Starving  Time  "  in  Virginia? 
What  was  its  cause  and  result? 

'  31.  When,  where,  and  by  whom  convenea,  was  the 
first  legislative  body  in  America? 

32.  When  was  negro  slavery  introduced  into 
America  ? 

^/^133.  When  was  the  Navigation  Act  passed?  When 
enforced?     "What  were  its  provisions? 

34.  State  the  cause  and  date  of  Bacon's  Rebellion. 

35.  Give  the  dates  of  the  two  Indian  massacres  in 
Virginia. 

36.  (a)  Who  was  Pocahontas?  (6)  What  influ- 
ence had  she  upon  the  Jamestown  Colony? 

37.  When,  where,  and  by  whom  was  New  York 
settled? 


12 


178  QUESTIONS   ON    UNITED    STATES    HISTORY. 

38.  Kame  in  order  the  four  Dutch  Governors  of 
New  Xijrk. 

7^^9.  Wheat  people  settled  Delaware  ?     Under  whose 
auspices  ?     By  whom  conquered  ? 

40.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  term  Puritan,  as  ap- 
plied to  the  Plymouth  settlers  ? 

41.  (a)  What  was  the  character  of  the  Pilgrim  set- 
tlers ?  (b)  How  did  it  fit  them  to  become  the  founders 
of  a  successful  colony  in  the  New  World  ? 

42.  (a)  State  the  plan  of  working  practiced  by  the 
early  settlers  of  America,  (b)  What  were  its  merits 
and  demerits  ? 

43.  From  what  religious  disturbances  did  the  colon- 
ists of  Massachusetts  suffer? 

44.  («)  What  colonies  composed  the  famous 
"  United  Colonies  of  New  England?  "  (b)  What  was 
the  purpose  of  the  Union? 

45.  When  did  King  Philip's  War  occur? 

46.  State  the  cause  and  result  of  King  Philip's  War. 

47.  Why  was  Massachusetts  made  a  Royal  Province  ? 
Who  was  appointed  governor  ? 

48.  What  social  delusion  occasioned  great  excite- 
ment in  Massachusetts  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 

century  ? 

~  49.  Who  settled  Connecticut? 

50.  When  was  the  Pctiuod  War?  What  was  the 
principal  action?     How  did  it  terminate? 

51.  Under  whom  and  by  what  class  of  people  was 
Rhode  Island  settled  ? 


QUESTIONS    ON    UNITED    STATES    HISTORY.  179 

52.  What  is  particularly  remarkable  about  the  code 
of  laws  adopted  by  Rhode  Island  ? 

53.  State  what  you  can  respecting  general  religious 
persecutions  during  the  17th  century. 

■^  54.  How  did  New  York  come  into  the  possession  of 
the  English? 

55.  By  what  different  sects  was  Pennsylvania  prin- 
cipally settled  ?     What  reasons  can  you  assign  for  this  ? 

56.  What  were  the  prominent  principles  of  the  laws 
established  in  Pennsylvania  under  the  guidance  of 
William  Penn  ? 

57.  What  remarkable  feature  can  you  mention  in 
connection  with  Penn's  celebrated  treaty  with  the  In- 
dians? 

7  58.  When,  where,  by  whom,  and  for  what  purpose 
was  Maryland  settled? 

59.  What  were  the  provisions  of  the  Toleration  Act 
passed  by  the  Maryland  Assembly  in  1649? 

60.  How  did  the  religious  tolerance  of  Rhode  Island 
and  Maryland  differ? 

61.  Give  date  and  cause  of  Claiborne's  Rebellion. 

-    62.  What  religious  troubles  occurred  in  Maryland? 

63.  Explain  the  origin  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line. 

64.  After  w4iom  was  Carolina  named  and  by  whom? 

65.  What  was  "  Locke's  Grand  Model?  " 

->  66.  By  whom  and  when  was  Georgia  founded  and 
for  what  purpose  ? 

67.  What  restrictions  were  contained  in  the  early 
laws  of  Georgia,  and  what  was  the  effect? 

68.  By  what  people  was  Charleston  largely  settled? 


180  QUESTIONS    ON   UNITED    STATES    HISTORY. 

69.  Name  four  missionaries  among  the  Indians, 

70.  What  was  the  character  of  Governor  Andres's 
administration  in  New  England? 

71.  Give  the  dates  of  the  introduction  of  some  of 
the  religious  societies  in  the  American  colonies. 

72.  ^^'hat  may  be  said  of  educational  provisions 
among  the  early  colonies  ? 

73.  What  were  the  causes  of  King  William's  War? 

74.  AAliat  cause  can  you  assign  for  the  Indians  usu- 
ally siding  with  the  French  against  the  English? 

75.  Name  the  principal  actions  and  their  results  of 
King  William's  War. 

76.  What  treaty  ended  King  William's  War,  and  how 
did  it  affect  the  American  Colonies? 

77.  What  was  the  cause  and  duration  of  Queen 
Anne's  War? 

^78.   (ff)    Name   the     important     events    of  Queen 

Anne's  War.     ( ''> )  By  what  treaty  and  upon  what  terms 

was  it  settled  ? 

^'  79 .  State  the  date ,  cause  and  result  of  King  George' s 

War. 

80.  (a)  What  was  the  state  of  feeling  between 
French  and  English  settlers  in  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century?  (5)  How  had  this  condition  been  brought 
about  ? 

81.  What  was  the  geographical  position  of  the 
French  and  English  settlements  at  the  opening  of  the 
French  and  Indian  War?  How  did  this  compare  with 
their  respective  claims  ? 


QUESTIONS   ON   UNITED    STATES   HISTORY.  181 

82.  Give  some  account  of  the  ancestry  of  Washing- 
ton. 

83.  Name  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  traits 
which  fitted  Washington  for  his  destiny. 

84.  By  whom  and  for  what  purpose  was  Wash- 
ington sent  to  the  French  commandant  at  Fort  le  Boeuf  ? 

85.  What  were  the  five  objective  points  of  the  Brit- 
ish during  the  French  and  Indian  War  ? 

86.  (a)  What  gave  Fort  du  Quesne  its  importance? 
(6)  Who  conducted  the  expedition  against  this  fort? 
(c)  With  what  result?  (d)  By  whom  and  when  was 
the  fort  taken  ? 

87.  State  the  result  of  expeditions  against  Loiiis- 
burg.  Crown  Point  and  Ticonderoga,  and  Niagara. 

88.  By  what  military  action  was  the  French  and  In- 
dian War  terminated?     By  whom  conducted? 

89.  State  the  results  of  the  French  and  Indian  War 
to  (a)  the  French;  (6)  the  English;  (c)  the  Colonists. 

90.  What  eminent  revolutionary  generals  received 
their  training  in  the  French  and  Indian  War? 

'^^^.  What  was  the  population  of  the  American  col- 
onies at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution? 

92.  What  forms  of  government  existed  in  the  colo- 
nies prior  to  the  Revolution? 

93.  Name  the  Colleges  of  Colonial  times,  and  state 
which  of  these  owed  its  existence  to  the  patronage  of 
the  home  government. 

94.  Where  and  when  was  the  first  printing  press  in 
America  ?     The  first  jjermcnieiii  newspaper  ? 


182  QUESTIONS    ON   UNITED    STATES   HISTORY. 

95.  What  differences  in  the  customs  and  manners  of 
the  northern,  middle,  and  southern  colonies  existed  in 
Colonial  times? 

96.  What  noted  events  occurred  on  the  followinGr 
dates:  October  12,1492;  May  23,  1G07  ;  June  28, 
1619;  December  21,  1620;  February  22,  1732? 

97.  What  connection  had  the  following  persons  with 
American  history:  DeSoto,  Leonard  Calvert,  Roger 
Williams,  D'Iberville,  Sir  William  Pepperell? 

98.  (a)  When  was  rice  first  cultivated  in  South 
Carolina?     (6)  When  first  exported? 

'^'99.  "VYhen,  where,  and  by  whom  was  the  first  per- 
manent settlement  made  in  the  ^Mississippi  valley? 

100.  Show  in  what  manner  the  influence  of  the  early 
Governors  of  Virginia  retarded  the  progress  of  educa- 
tion. 

101.  How  were  the  manufacturing  and  commercial 
enterprises  of  the  colonists  regarded  by  the  British 
government  ? 

102.  What  was  the  condition  of  American  literature 
prior  to  the  Revolution? 

103  Name  in  order  of  numbers  the  nationalities  rep- 
resented in  the  American  colonies  at  the  opening  of  the 
Revolution. 

104.  What  were  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the 
colonists  which  influenced  them  in  resisting  the  oppres- 
sions of  the  mother  country  ? 
■^105.  Enumerate  what  are  commonly  styled  the  re- 
mote causes  of  the  Revolution. 
>  106.  What  w^as  the  direct  cause  of  the  Revolution? 


QtTESTIONS    ON"   UNITED    STATES   HISTORY.  183 

107.  Who  and  in  what  manner  sounded  "  The 
trumpet  of  the  Revolution  ?  " 

108.  Name  some  popular  demonstrations  showing 
the  general  opposition  to  the  measures  of  the  British 
government  on  the  part  of  the  colonists  in  the  decade 
preceding  the  Eevolution. 

7109.   (a)  What  was  the    Mutiny  Act?     (6)   Why 
passed?     (c)  What  was  its  effect? 

110.  Give  a  short  history  of  Faneuil  Hall. 

111.  What  application  had  the  terms  "  Whigs  and 
Tories?" 

112.  How  was  Boston  punished  for  the  "Tea 
Party?" 

113.  Give  the  dates,  places  of  convening,  and  objects 
of  the  three  colonial  Congresses  held  prior  to  the  Rev- 
olution. 

114.  (a)  What  and  where  was  the  first  battle  of  the 
Revolution?  {b)  What  was  its  purpose?  (c)  What 
was  its  effect? 

'115.  When    and  where  was  the  second  Continental 
Congress  held?     Name  its  principal  acts. 

IIG.  For  what  purpose,  by  whom  conducted,  and 
with  what  result  was  an  expedition  made  against  Can- 
ada in  1775? 

117.  Name  the  principal  military  actions  of  1776. 

118.  By  whom  and  when  was  the  resolution  declar- 
ing the  Colonies  free  and  independent  States  intro- 
duced? 

^  119.   (fl)  By  whom  was  the    Declaration   of  Inde- 
pendence drawn  up  ?     (6)  When  adopted  by  Congress, 


184  QUESTTONS   O^T  UNITED   STATES  HISTORY. 

and  by  what  majority?     (c)  By  how  many  members 
signed?     (d)  What  was  its  effect? 

120.  By  what  movements  did  Washington  display 
his  greatest  military  powers  ? 

121.  Name  five  eminent  European  officers  who 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Continental  armies. 

122.  (a)  What  was  the  object  of  Burgoyne's  expe- 
dition?    (b)  What  was  his  force ? 

123.  How  were  the  plans  of  Burgoyne  defeated? 

124.  What  officers  contributed  largely  to  the  check 
and  defeat  of  Burgoyne's  army? 

125.  When  was  the  present  American  Flag  adopted? 

126.  What  is  meant  by  the  Conway  cabal? 

127.  W'hat  evidence  attests  the  suffering  and 
patriotism  of  the  American  army  during  the  Kevolu- 
tion? 

128.  Name  the  circumstances  which  induced  France 
to  aid  the  United  States  against  England. 

129.  How  far  did  the  treaty  of  alliance  with 
France  contribute  to  the  ultimate  success  of  the  Eevo- 
lution  ? 

130.  Name  the  principal  battles  of  1777. 

131.  (rt)  What  financial  measures  were  adopted  by 
Congress  to  carry  on  the  Revolution?  (b)  What  was 
the  result  of  the  measure  ? 

132.  Name  the  patriot  leaders  of  the  South  during 
the  Revolution. 

133.  (a)  State  the  cause  of  Arnold's  treason,  (b) 
Its  effect,     (c)  His  reward. 


QUESTIONS   ON   UNITED   STATES   HISTORY.  185 

134.  (a)  What  difficulties  beset  the  Continental 
Army  in  consequence  of  a  depreciated  currency?  (b) 
How  were  these  difficulties  aggravated  by  the 
British  ? 

135.  Name  the  important  military  events  of  1778. 

136.  What  important  battles  occurred  in  1779? 

137.  Who  was  the  "great  financier"  during  the 
Kevolution  ? 

138.  What  is  particularly  remarkable  about  Gen- 
eral Greene's  campaign  in  the  Carolinas? 

139.  Name  the  battles  of  1780. 

140.  What  important  military  actions  occurred  in 
1781? 

141.  (a)  By  what  treaty  was  the  independence  of 
the  United  States  recognized?  (b)  Who  were  the 
commissioners  appointed  by  Congress? 

142.  Relate  some  circumstance  showing  a  tendency 
on  the  part  of  the  founders  of  our  government  to  estab- 
lish a  monarchy  instead  of  a  republic. 

143.  (rt)  What  were  the  "  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion?" (b)  When  adopted  by  Congress?  (c)  When 
did  they  become  binding  upon  the  States?  (d)  What 
were  some  of  their  radical  defects  ? 

144.  State  the  origin  of  the  Constitution. 

145.  (a)  Into  what  two  parties  were  the  people 
divided  during  the  discussion  pending  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution?  (6)  What  were  the- principles  of 
these  two  parties?  (c)  Name  some  prominent  Con- 
stitutional advocates. 


186  QUESTIONS    ON   tJNITED    STATES   HISTORY. 

146.  (a)  When  did  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  go  into  operation?  (5)  What  States  had  not 
adopted  it  at  that  time?  (c)  Who  ',vas  chosen  first 
President  and  how  elected? 

147.  State  the  effect  of  the  Kevolutionary  war  upon 
the  morals,  manners,  religion,  education,  commerce, 
and  manufactures  of  the  States. 

148.  Who  composed  Washington's  cabinet? 

149.  Name  some  of  the  difficulties  with  which  the 
first  administration  had  to  contend. 

150.  (a)  What  financial  measures  we  re  proposed  by 
Hamilton?     (b)  State  their  effect. 

151.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia ? 

152.  (a)  What  political  parties  Were  formed  during 
Washington's  administration  ?  (5)  What  distinguished 
men  were  the  leaders  of  these  parties? 

153.  What  course  did  the  people  and  government  of 
the  United  States  pursue  with  respect  to  the  French 
Revolution? 

154.  (a)  What  laws  enacted  during  Adams's  admin- 
istration turned  popular  favor  from  the  Federalists? 
(b)  Explain  these  laws. 

155.  What  was  the  first  official  expression  of  the 
doctrine  of  State  Eights  ? 

156.  In  what  manner  and  when  did  the  United  States 
acquire  Louisiana? 

157.  When,  by  whom,  and  by  what  means  was  steam 
first  practically  applied  to  navigation? 


QUEPTIOXS    ON   UXITED    STATES    HISTORY.  187 

158.  Enumerate  the  causes  of  the  second  war  with 
Great  Britain. 

159.  (a)  Why  was  not  the  War  of  1812  a  popular 
measure  throughout  the  country?  (b)  What  party 
generally  opposed  the  war  ? 

160.  What  was  the  general  pian  of  the  Americans  at 
the  opening  of  the  Second  War  with  Great  Britain? 

161.  Contrast  the  general  conduct  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces  during  1812. 

162.  What  armies  were  organized  for  the  campaign 
of  1813,  and  by  whom  commanded,  and  for  what  pur- 
pose ? 

163.  What  action  did  Massachusetts  take  with  ref- 
erence to  the  War  of  1812? 

164.  (rt)  What  was  the  Hartford  Convention?  (6) 
Why  was  it  called?     (c)  What  was  its  action? 

165.  Name  the  principal  battles  of  the  Second  War 
with  Great  Britain. 

166.  By  what  treaty  was  this  war  ended? 

167.  What  were  the  results  of  the  War  of  1812? 

^  168.  Name  the    principal  events  of  Washington's 
Administration. 

•   169.  Name  the  principal  events  of  Adams's  Admin- 
istration. 

170.  What  is  particularly  remarkable  about  the  elec- 
tion of  James  Monroe  to  the  presidency? 

171.  (a)  What  changes  in  the  political  parties  of  the 
United  States  occurred  during  INIonroe's  administra- 
tion? (?))  What  particular  measures  characterized  the 
new  parties  ? 


188  QUESTIONS   ON  UNITED    STATES   HISTORY. 

'   172.  Name  the  principal  events  of  Monroe's  admin- 
istration. 

173.  Name  some  noted  events  which  occurred  July 
4th. 

174.  What  was  the  Mssouri  Compromise? 

175.  When  and  for  what  consideration  did  the 
United  States  obtain  Florida? 

176.  What  is  the  Monroe  Doctrine? 

177.  How  was  John  Quincy  Adams  elected  Presi- 
dent? 

178.  Name  the  coincidences  in  the  lives  of  John 
Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson. 

'  179.  For   what   Avas   the    administration    of   J.  Q. 
Adams  particularly  distinguished  ? 

180.  What  practice  in  official  appointments  was  in- 
troduced by  President  Jackson  in  1829? 

181.  State  the  means  proposed  by  Jackson  to  secure 
from  France  the  payment  of  indemnities  for  destruc- 
tion of  American  commerce  during  the  Napoleonic 
wars. 

182.  When  did  the  cholera  make  its  first  appear- 
ance in  the  United  States  ? 

183.  Give  an  account  of  the  nullification  ordinance. 

184.  Name  the  circumstances  Avhich  contributed  to 
the  financial  crisis  of  1837. 

185.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  northeastern 
boundary  settled? 

186.  In  what  respect  did  John  Tyler  resemble 
Andrew  Johnson  in  his  official  acts  ? 


QUESTIONS   ON   UNITED   STATES   HISTORY.  189 

187.  What  were  the  conditions  upon  which  Texas 
was  annexed  to  the  United  States? 

188.  What  were  the  chief  grounds  of  opposition  to 
the  annexation  of  Texas  ? 

189.  (a)  Upon  what  were  the  rival  claims  of  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States  to  Oregon  based ?  (h'^  How 
and  where  were  these  claims  settled? 

190.  (rt)  What  was  the  cause  of  the  war  with  Mex- 
ico? {h)  When  did  it  begin?  (c)  How  long  did  it 
continue?  (cZ)  By  what  treaty  was  the  war  closed? 
(e)  What  were  the  terms  of  this  treaty? 

191.  What  battles  in  Mexico  were  won  by  the  Amer- 
icans ? 

192.  (rt)  AATiat  sectional  disturbances  threatened  the 
Union  at  the  beginning  of  Taylor's  administration? 
(5)  How  were  the  dangers  averted? 

,    193.  Name  the  five  provisions  of  the  Compromise  of 
1850,  known  as  the  Omnibus  Bill. 

194.  («)  What  was  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill ?  (5) 
Who  was  its  author?  (c)  What  was  the  legal  effect  of 
its  passage?    (cZ)  State  its  political  effect. 

195.  What  Congressional  act  may  be  said  to  have 
given  birth  and  strength  to  the  Republican  party? 

196.  Name  the  political  parties  which  have  existed 
since  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 

197.  Name  the  principal  events  of  Pierce's  admin- 
istration. 

198.  (a)  What  was  the  Dred  Scott  decision?  (6) 
How  was  it  regarded  by  the  North  and  South  ? 


190  QUESTIONS   ON  UNITED   STATES    HISTORY. 

199.  What  was  the  alleged  cause  of  the  secession  of 
the  Southern  States? 

200.  Name  the  States  which  formed  the  "  Confed- 
erate States  of  America." 

201.  (a)  When  and  how  was  the  War  of  Secession 
begun?  (b)  When  and  how  was  it  ended? 

202.  What  was  the  attitude  of  England  and  France 
toward  the  United  States  during  the  Rebellion  ? 

203.  What  was  the  general  result  of  the  first  year  of 
the  War  of  Secession  ? 

201.  What  was  the  general  plan  of  conducting  the 
war  of  the  Rebellion  on  the  part  of  the  goverment? 

205.  Show  in  what  manner  the  defeat  of  the  national 
troops  at  Bull  Run  proved  advantageous  to  the  cause  of 
the  Union. 

206.  Name  ten  important  battles  of  the  Rebellion 
fought  in  1862,  and  state  which  were  Union  and  which 
Confederate  victories. 

207.  What  was  the  numerical  strength  of  the  Union 
and  Confederate  armies  at  the  beginning  of  1863? 

208.  (rt)  When  and  by  whom  was  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation  issued?  {b)  Whom  did  it  include?  (c) 
How  was  it  justified  ? 

209.  (a)  How  many  invasions  of  the  North  were 
attempted  by  Lee?  (6)  How  and  when  were  these 
checked  ? 

210.  (a)  What  was  the  turning  point  of  the  War  of 
the  Rebellion?  (6)  What  mihtary  actions  determined 
this  point? 


QUESTIONS    ON    UNITED    STATES    HISTORY.  191 

211.  Name  the  great  battles  won  by  the  Confed- 
erates in  1863. 

212.  What  was  the  purpose  of  Sherman's  "  March 
to  the  Sea." 

213.  What  reasons  may  be  assigned  for  the  failure  of 
the  United  States  government  to  subdue  the  Rebellion 
earlier  than  it  did  ? 

214.  Name  some  of  the  most  important  naval  actions 
of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion. 

215.  Name  in  order  the  generals  who  commanded 
the  army  of  the  Potomac. 

216.  How  were  the  war  measures  of  the  government 
during  the  Rebellion  impeded  in  the  North? 

217.  State  the  number  of  men  actually  enlisted  in 
the  Union  army  during  the  Rebellion. 

218.  (a)  About  what  time  during  the  Rebellion  did 
the  United  States  army  contain  the  greatest  number  of 
men?  (6)  What  was  the  daily  expense  of  the  govern- 
ment at  this  time? 

210.  What  was  the  total  cost  to  the  government  of 
the  War  of  Secession? 

220.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  War  of  Secession 
upon  the  North  and  South  respectively? 

221.  How  were  the  expenses  of  the  government 
during  the  Rebellion  provided  for  by  Congress? 

222.  How  and  when  was  slavery  in  the  United 
States  abolished? 

223.  Write  a  summary  of  the  principles  contained 
in  the  Fourteenth  Amendment. 


192  QUESTIONS    OX    UNITED    STATES    HISTORY. 

224.  How  were  the  men  engaged  in  the  Rebellion 
restored  to  their  rights  and  privileges  in  the  Union? 

225.  How  and  why  were  States  engaged  in  rebellion 
governed  pending  what  is  known  as  the  "  reconstruc- 
tion?" 

226.  Give  an  account  of  the  difficulties  between 
President  Johnson  and  Congress  which  led  to  his  im- 
peachment.   What  was  the  result  of  this  impeachment  ? 

227.  State  fully  the  nature  of  the  "Alabama 
Claims." 

228.  How  was  the  difficulty  regarding  the  Presi- 
dential contest  of  1876  settled? 

229.  What  Presidents  had  been  formerly  Vice 
Presidents  ? 

230.  Name  the  Presidents  who  died  in  office 

231.  Name  the  Presidents  in  chronological  order, 
and  after  each  write  the  name  of  the  pra-ty  by  which 
he  was  elected,  date  of  inauguration,  and  term  of  office. 

232.  (a)  When,  and  by  whom,  was  the  cotton  gin 
invented?  (b)  What  can  you  say  of  its  political  in- 
fluence in  the*United  States? 

233.  Name  the  Presidents  who  had  been  military 
men. 

234.  For  what  is  April  19th  notable  in  the  history 
of  the  United  States  ? 

235.  What  officer  has  charge  of  the  National  Bureau 
of  Agriculture? 

236.  When,  where,  and  by  whom  was  Indiana  first 
settled  ? 


QUESTIONS    ON    UNITED    STATES    HISTORY.  103 

237.  Name  five  distinguished  Union  officers  killed 
during  the  War  of  Secession. 

238.  (a)  State  the  difference  between  a  protective 
tariff  and  free  trade,  (b)  Which  sections  of  the  Union 
have  favored  these  tv.o  policies?  (c)  Name  three 
political  leaders  who  have  favored  a  protective  tariff. 
(d)  Three  who  have  favored  free  trade. 

230.  Name  the  Presidential  candidates  of  1860  and 
the  parties  they  represented. 

240.  (a)  When,  w^hcre,  and  by  what  people  was 
Missouri  settled?  (b)  When  did  it  become  a  separate 
territory?     (c)  When  was  it  admitted  into  the  Uniou? 

241.  When  and  where  was  California  first  settled 
by  a  civilized  race? 

242.  Name,  including  the  more  important  Indian 
troubles,  the  wars  in  which  the  United  States  have 
been  engaged. 

243.  {a)  In  what  four  ways  have  the  United  States 
acquired  territory?  (b)  Specify  the  territory  gained 
by  each  method,  and  state  from  whom  acquired. 

244.  Name  the  three  greatest  books  published  by 
American  writers. 

245.  What  were  the  requirements  of  reconstruc- 
tion imposed  upon  the  States  which  had  passed  ordi- 
nances of  secession? 

246.  Name  the  most  decisive  battle  fought  in  the 
following  States  :  Massachusetts,  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, Maryland,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  Georgia, 
Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Kentucky. 


13 


194        ANS^\TEES    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    U.   S.  HISTORY. 

247.  What  general  is  said  never  to  have  lost  a 
battle? 

248.  (a)  How  many  attempts  were  made  to  lay  the 
Atlantic  cable.     (6)  To  whom  was  the  success   due? 

249.  Explain  briefly  the  distinctions  between  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  and  the  Constitution. 

250.  When,  and  for  what  purpose,  was  the  first 
paper  money  used  in  America? 

251  Name,  three  orators  of  America,  three  states- 
men, three  poets,  three  historians,  three  novelists, 
three  inventors. 

252.  Give  the  names  of  ten  of  the  most  prominent 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

253.  What  persons  have  held  the  offices  of  General 
and  Lieutenant-General  respectively? 

254.  In  whom  was  the  American  executive  power 
vested  from  1787  to  1789? 

255.  Name  five  important  national  events  since  the 
Rebellion. 

256.  What  important  decision  was  rendered  by  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  in  1883? 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  UNITED  STATES 
HISTORY. 

1.  1st.  That  they  are  aborigines.  2nd.  That  they 
are  descendants  of  Asiatic  tribes  who  crossed  Behring's 
Strait.     3rd.  That  they  are  descendants  of  Phoenician 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   U.  S.  HISTORY.        195 

or  Carthaginian  colonies.  4th.  That  t!iey  are  the  ten 
"  lost  tribes  "  of  Israel,  who  were  conquered  by  Shal- 
maneser,  King  of  Assyria,  700  B.  C.  5th.  That  they 
are  descended  from  the  early  Egyptians. 

2.  Throughout  the  Mississippi  Valley  many  thou- 
sand mounds  and  other  curiously  constructed  earth- 
works, seemingly  designed  for  religious  and  military 
purposes,  attest  the  presence  of  a  race  greatly  superior 
to  the  Indians.  Architectural  remains,  as  ruins  of 
magnificent  temples,  cities  and  extended  graded  ways 
scattered  along  the  western  coast  of  South  America 
and  throughout  Mexico  and  Central  America,  point  to 
a  people  who  had  attained  a  degree  of  civilization  not 
inferior  to  their  contemporaries  of  Europe  at  the  time 
in  which  they  flourished. 

3.  The  Indians  are  cruel,  treacherous,  revengeful; 
and  though  boastful  of  their  willingness  for  war,  have 
ever  shown  themselves,  as  a  race,  cowardly  in  open 
battle.  They  are  lazy  and  improvident,  —  the  lessons 
of  famine  teachino;  them  nothing  for  the  future.  The 
women  are  degraded,  and  regarded  by  the  men  as  only 
fit  to  bear  the  burdens  of  their  lords  and  provide  for 
their  daily  wants. 

4.  The  claims  of  the  Northmen,  about  the  year 
1000. 

6.  1st.  The  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass  in 
1302,  and  later,  the  astrolabe,  an  instrument  for 
reckoning  latitude.  2nd.  An  increased  desire  for 
geographical  knowledge.  3rd.  The  invention  of  print- 
ing, furnishing  numerous  books  of  travel  and  descrip- 


196       ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY. 

tion  of  other  lands.  4th.  Increased  commercial 
activity  and  a  general  demand  for  a  route  to  the  East 
Indies. 

6.  He  early  displayed  a  fondness  for  Mathematics, 
Geography,  and  Astronomy.  At  fourteen  he  went  to 
sea,  where  he  continued,  with  few  interruptions,  all 
his  life.  Marrying  the  daughter  of  an  eminent  Portu- 
guese navigator,  he  became  possessed  of  numerous 
charts  and  journals,  which  increased  his  thirst  for  dis- 
covery. 

7.  First,  to  the  Senate  of  Genoa;  second,  to  King 
John  II.,  of  Portugal  ;  third,  to  Henry  VIL,  of  Eng- 
land, and,  fourth,  to  the  court  of  Spain. 

8.  (a)  Columbus  made  four  voyages,  (b)  In  the 
first  voyage  he  discovered  San  Salvador,  Cuba,  and 
Hispaniola;  in  the  second,  Jamaica,  and  other  neigh- 
boring islands ;  in  the  third,  Trinidad,  and  the  coast 
of  South  America  in  1498;  in  the  fourth  he  explored 
the  coast  of  Darien  in  1503. 

9.  A  German  geographer,  Waldsee-Miiller,  in  re- 
publishing the  adventures  of  Americus  Vespucius,  a 
companion  of  Columbus,  suggested  that  the  name  of 
this  loriter  should  be  applied  to  the  country  discovered 
by  Columbus. 

10.  Columbus,  supposing  the  lands  he  had  discov- 
ered were  the  outlying  islands  of  India,  called  the 
natives  Indians. 

'  11.  First,  the  discovery  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  by 
Balboa  in  1513,  and,  second,  the  circumnavigation  of 
the  globe  by  Magellan  in  1520. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY.        197 

12.  Ho  was  promised  the  life  Vice-royalty  of  all  the 
countries  he  might  discover,  and  died  in  poverty  and 
obscurity,  requesting  that  his  chains  be  buried  with 
him. 

13.  Columbus,  San  Salvador,  1492;  Ponce  de  Leon, 
Florida,  1512;  Balboa,  South  Sea  (Pacific),  1513; 
Cordova,  Yucatan,  1517  ;  Magellan,  rounded  S.  Amer- 
ica and  crossed  the  Pacific  Ocean,  1520;  De  Ayllou, 
Carolina,  1520  ;  Cortez,  Mexico,  1519-21  ;  DeNarvaez, 
Florida,  1528;  De  Soto,  Mississippi  River,  1541; 
Espejo,  New  Mexico,  1582. 

14.  (a)  England  claimed  that  portion  of  North 
America  lying  between  Labrador  and  Florida,  and 
from  ocean  to  ocean,  (b)  This  claim  was  based  upon 
the  discovery  of  Labrador  and  southward  explorations 
by  the  Cabots,  in  1497. 

15.  Frobisher,  Drake,  Gilbert,  Gosnold,  and  Smith. 
10.  In  1578,  by  Gilbert,  in  1583,  and  again  in  1587, 

by  Raleigh, 

17.  France  claimed  the  valleys  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  Rivers,  and  the  islands  in  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  She  attempted  to  make  these 
claims  good  by  planting  military  stations,  missions, 
and  trading  posts  at  strategic  points  throughout  the 
region. 

18.  Verrazani,  1524,  the  coast  from  North  Carolina 
to  New  York;  Cartier,  1535,  St.  Lawrence  River; 
John  Ribaut,  1562,  South  Carolina;  De  Monts,  1605, 
Nova  Scotia;   Champlain,  1609,  Lake  Champhun. 


198       ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   tJ.  S.  niSTOKY. 

10.  At  Port  K()\':il  in  1005  by  Do  Monts,  and  Que- 
bec in  in08  by  Chnniplain. 

20.  Holland  claimed  the  Hudson  valley  as  far  ca.st 
as  the  Comiecticut,  and  the  land  embraced  in  the  pres- 
ent States  of  New  Jersey  and  Dehiware,  and  the  east- 
ern shores  of  Maryland  and  Vir;:^inia.  This  claim  was 
based  on  the  discoveries  of  Henry  Hnd-on. 

21.  To  found  an  asylum  for  the;  Hu^ajonots,  a  sect 
of  Fren<;h  Protestants  who  were  suffering  from  perse- 
cution at  home. 

22.  1st.  Tluihosliiily  ofthc  ii;itlv<-s.  2n(l.  Th(;  jeal- 
ousy am(jiig  1h<!  rival  ciaimniits  1o  the  country.  3rd. 
Th(i  absence  of  any  gr(!al  ohjcci  of  conquest,  as  ex- 
isted in  Mexico  and  Peiu.  Ith.  The  distance  from 
Europe  and  the  inconvenience  of  t  lan-fcrriug  settlers 
in  large  numbers  to  new  homes. 

2.'J.  (ft)  Southwai'd  along  the  coa.sts  of  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, and  Africa  to  the  Canary  Islands,  thence  neaily 
westward  to  llie  li;ih;iiii;i<.  (/;)  (io-iiold  in  1  (;02 
shortened  the  passage  '.'),()()()  miles  by  sailing  directly 
from  England  to  Massachusetts. 

24.  St.  Augustine,  by  the  Spanish,  150.5;  Port 
Royal,  N.  S.,  by  tli<-,  Preiich,  1(;05;  Jamestown,  by 
th(!  English,  1007  ;  New  York,  by  the  Duleh,  l<;i;{. 

25.  («)  The  London  Company  and  the  Plymouth 
Company,  named  from  the  residence  of  their  principal 
members,  (/j)  James  I.  granted  to  the  fii-st  company 
all  lands  lying  between  the  8Ith  and  .38tl)  p;ir:illels  of 
noi-th    latitude,  to  the   I'lymoiith    Company    lh(;    land 


hro^  !ystwe«fi    tk^.  4l<^    and   45tfe   |«waII«>U4,     Both 

gTttnt*  eslr^ja<!<*tf  from  th    .■.'     ■  ^  to  tb<»  Panlir.. 

215.  Ih^  c-t-^aipnav.  .  .f  105   p«>iNirtOi*,  d^ 

s'on>->f  f  .iranna  of  Cnp- 

tA  '     N  .•    on    Eonnotr(» 

I  'tail  :  hun  a.  -Poit^nr.  storm  «inn«Hl  th<>m  noithwarti 
int.-v  Chfi^sapejtlte  B-jy.  Fixuilja?;  a  good  hjirl^or  off 
Poiint  Comfort,  m  najn«d  oa  acnonnt  of  their  recent 
piftYil,  tht^j  w  ■  '  -  ''-.^  James*  Rii?sr,  wh»»rft  on  th«* 
Hk  of  \hj,  :  miles  ahove  it-*  mouth  the.y  *<*- 

kctf^i  A  .*it«»  : 

3fT    'n^-str  V  i^j*^  annf*«^d  to  khor 

ot  th<»  me:i«>>*  ti:>  he  ero- 

-  }'  wmn»  mori*  of  a  harden 

rii;ia  A  help  to  the  few  who  were  capable  of  fouadiag  a 

colonj  in  the  wilderne»». 

2^.  The  attention  of  the  aettfecs  wan  so  ocnnpied  by 
*  iT'  "        i  in  a  sraaJl  .«4tream« 

'■^'J'  .!itor  tnlketl  of  hut 

^'-  1.     In  thii4  dehwion 

ti*-'-  lin^  lookin^j  to  per- 

maaenr.  et-^mfort  w  l. 

2a.  For  the  nt:.  /  ....  .-  _  ird  of  the  personal  ri^ts, 
wishes,  aaid  needn  of  tlie  colonit*fj«  themi»elvej4.  They 
weredatevi  1H0»^»  liWO,  and   li^li^  respectively. 

30.  The   winter   of    l(>()0-l()  w.i.^    known    oa    the 

'^.*'     The  Lnftncnre  of  Stiiith,  the  con- 

f  J;im«»sto wn .  heinjj  removetl  by  hia  re- 

i:..ru    r.)     taj'ljuid,  the    coloniatd    became   a   prey   to 

!:uint^s^.    dijie:u!»e,  and    famine.     In  :»ix   months   they 

were  redneeti  from  4S)0'  to  HO. 


200       ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY. 

31.  It  was  called  by  Governor  Yeardley  at  James- 
town, June  19,  1619.  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
"  House  of  Burgesses  "  in  Virginia. 

32.  Twenty  negroes  were  sold  to  the  Jamestown  col- 
onists by  the  captain  of  a  Dutch  trading  vessel  in  1619. 
Their  labor  was  found  so  profitable  in  the  cultivation 
of  tobacco  that  many  others  were  afterward  imported. 

33.  It  was  passed  in  1651,  and  enforced  in  1660. 
It  required  that  all  colonial  commerce  should  be  car- 
ried on  in  English  vessels,  and  that  all  tobacco  should 
be  shipped  to  England. 

34.  Governor  Berkley,  of  Virginia,  failing  to  pro- 
vide sufficient  defence  against  the  Indians,  the  people 
in  1676  proceeded  against  them  under  a  popular  leader 
named  Nathaniel  Bacon.  The  Governor  denounced 
Bacon  as  a  traitor,  and  refused  him  a  commission. 
Bacon  marched  against  the  Governor,  driving  him  and 
his  party  out  of  Jamestown.  The  rebellion  was  ended 
by  the  death  of  Bacon. 

35.  The  first,  in  1622;  the  second,  in  1644. 

36.  (a)  Pocahontas  was  the  daughter  of  the  Indian 
chief  Powhatan,  (b)  She  saved  the  life  of  Captain 
Smith,  the  leader  of  the  Jamestown  colony,  often 
brought  food  to  the  colonists,  and  in  1613  married 
John  Rolfe,  an  English  planter.  Through  her  influence 
the  friendship  of  the  Indians  was  secured  to  the  Eng- 
lish. 

37.  New  York  was  settled  in  1613,  on  Manhattan 
Island  by  Dutch  traders. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIOXS   ON   U.  S.  HISTORY.       201 

38.  Peter  Minuit,  Wouter  Van  Twiller,  William 
Eeft,  and  Peter  Stujvesant. 

39.  Delaware,  under  the  name  of  New  Sweden,  was 
settled  at  Wilmington  by  Swedes  and  Finns  in  1638, 
under  the  auspices  of  Oxenstiern,  the  minister  of  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus.  New  Sweden  was  claimed  by  the 
Dutch,  and  in  1652  the  whole  region  was  conquered 
and  added  to  New  Netherland. 

40.  It  was  applied  originally  in  reproach  to  the  dis- 
senters from  the  estahUshed  church  of  England  during 
the  reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  They  professed 
to  follow  the  pure  word  of  God,  in  opposition  to  all 
traditions  and  human  institutions  and  ceremonies. 

41.  («)  They  were  earnest,  sober-minded  people, 
governed  in  all  things  by  religious  principles  and  their 
convictions  of  duty.  (6)  For  twelve  years  they  had 
been  wanderers  in  Holland,  without  a  home,  without  a 
country.  They  longed  for  an  asylum  where  they  could 
rear  their  children  free  from  evil  influences,  and 
worship  God  according  to  the  dictates  of  their  con- 
sciences. 

42.  (rt)  Most  were  governed  by  a  community  inter- 
est, that  is,  they  shared  the  results  of  their  labor  in 
common.  The  practice  was  soon  abandoned,  (h) 
The  only  advantage  it  possessed  was  in  keeping  the 
settlers  together  for  mutual  defence,  but  it  encouraged 
improvidence  among  the  indolent. 

43.  Roger  Williams,  an  eloquent  minister,  after  ex- 
citing many  bitter  discussions,  was  banished  for  advo- 
cating greater  freedom  of  thought  and  action  than  was 


202       ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON    U.  S.  HISTORY. 

tolerated  by  the  majority.  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson, 
claiming  special  revelations  from  heaven,  aroused  such 
violent  and  bitter  controversy  among  the  clergy  that 
she,  too,  was  soon  after  banished.  Quakers  were 
whipped,  fined,  sent  out  of  the  colony,  and  four  were 
executed. 

44.  (a)  Massachusetts  Bay,  Plymouth,  New  Haven, 
and  Connecticut.  (6)  It  was  formed  for  protection 
against  the  Indians,  French,  and  Dutch. 

45.  It  opened  July  14,  1675. 

46.  Its  cause  was  the  jealousy  of  the  Indians  at  the 
encroachments  of  the  whites  and  an  attempt  to  exter- 
minate them  before  they  became  too  numerous.  Many 
settlers  were  massacred,  but  at  length  uniting  their 
forces  and  pursuing  the  Indians  to  their  retreats,  the 
whites  within  a  few  months  destroyed  nearly  the  en- 
tire force  of  savages.  Philip  was  shot  by  a  faithless 
Indian. 

47.  Massachusetts,  refusing  to  comply  with  the 
provisions  of  the  Navigation  Act,  Charles  II.  seized 
upon  her  conduct  as  an  act  of  disobedience,  and  made 
her  a  royal  province,  appointing  Sir  Edmund  Andros 
as  royal  governor  of  New  England. 

48.  The  Salem  witchcraft. 

49.  The  first  English  settlers  were  from  Massachu- 
setts. The  Dutch  had  previously  established  trading 
posts  along  the  Connecticut  River. 

50.  The  Pequod  War  was  begun  in  1637  by  the 
massacre  of  thirty  whites.     The  principal  battle  was 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS   OX    U.  S.  HISTORY.        203 

on  the  Mystic  River.     The  tribe  perished  in  the  action 
of  June  4,  1G37. 

51.  Ehode  Island  was  settled  first  by  Roger  Will- 
iams, and  later,  by  exiles  from  Massa(?husetts,  taking 
refuge  there  on  account  of  religious  persecutions. 

52.  It  was  "  the  first  legal  declaration  of  liberty  of 
conscience  ever  adopted  in  Europe  or  America." 

53.  Bigotry  and  religious  intolerance  prevailed 
among  all  the  dominant  sects,  both  in  Europe  and 
America,  to  such  an  extent  that  the  weaker  denomina- 
tions found  security  from  persecution  onl}^  among  the 
wilds  of  America. 

54.  The  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  IT., 
claimed  the  territory  by  virtue  of  a  grant  made  by  his 
brother  Charles  II.  The  colonists,  composed  largely 
of  English,  grew  restless  under  the  stern  rule  of  Gov- 
ernor Stuyvesant,  and  longed  for  the  freedom  granted 
the  neighboring  colony  of  Connecticut.  An  English 
fleet  appearing  in  the  harbor,  demanded  the  surrender, 
and  the  Governor,  unable  to  resist  the  threatened 
atack,  was  forced  to  surrender. 

55.  By  Puritans,  Quakers,  and  Scotch  Presbyte- 
rians. This  was  doubtless  due  to  the  benevolence  and 
charity  of  its  illustrious  founder,  William  Penn,  who 
desired  to  establish  a  colony  for  the  persecuted  of  .all 
sects  and  nations. 

56.  Faith  in  Christ  was  a  necessary  qualification  for 
voting  and  holding  office;  but  no  one  believing  in 
in  '^Umighty  God  "  should  be  molested  in  his  relig- 
ious practices. 


204       ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY. 

67.  *'  It  was  the  only  treaty  never  sworn  to,  and 
the  only  one  never  broken."  While  the  Indians 
waged  war  almost  continuously  with  other  colonies, 
they  never  shed  a  drop  of  Quaker  blood. 

58.  Maryland  was  settled  in  1634,  at  St.  Mary's,  hy 
Lord  Baltimore  [Cecil  Calvert],  as  a  refuge  for  perse- 
cuted Catholics. 

59.  It  secured  to  all  Christians  liberty  to  worship 
God  according  to  the  dictates  of  their  own  conscience. 

60.  The  Toleration  Act,  passed  by  Rhode  Island  in 
1647,  gave  protection  to  every  kind  of  faith  and  wor- 
ship, thus  including  the  universally  persecuted  Jew, 
while  that  of  Marjdand  extended  protection  to  all 
forms  of  Christianity  alone. 

61.  Claiborne,  a  member  of  the  Jamestown  Council, 
having  established  trading  posts  in  territory  claimed 
by  both  the  Virginia  colony  and  the  representatives  of 
Lord  Baltimore,  refused  to  submit  to  the  latter' s 
authority.  Being  convicted  of  murder  and  other 
crimes,  he  fled  from  the  province;  but  returning  in 
1637  with  a  large  mob,  he  broke  up  the  government. 
Governor  Calvert  the  next  year  regained  possession  of 
his  government.  Order  was  soon  restored,  and  Clai- 
borne was  driven  from  the  colony. 

62.  During  the  wars  of  Cromwell  the  Protestants 
gaining  supremacy  in  the  Maryland  Assembly,  de- 
prived the  Catholics  of  the  protection  of  the  laws.  A 
civil  war  ensued,  which  continued  till  Cromwell's  death, 
when  the  rights  of  Lord  Baltimore  were  restored. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    U.   S.  HISTORY.        205 

63.  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  separates  Pennsylvania 
from  Maryland,  Virginia  and  West  Virginia.  It  was 
surveyed  by  Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  two 
English  surveyors, between  1763  and  1767. 

64.  It  was  named  after  Charles  IX.  of  France,  by 
John  Ribault. 

65.  Clarendon  and  others  to  whom  Charles  II.  had 
granted  the  region  known  as  Carolina,  contemplated 
the  founding  of  a  great  empire.  John  Locke,  the  most 
eminent  philosopher  of  his  time,  was  engaged  to  draft 
a  scheme  and  charter  for  the  new  province.  This  in- 
strument, known  in  history  as  the  "  Grand  Model," 
gave  almost  unlimited  power  to  a  body  of  nobles,  but 
entirely  overlooked  the  rights  of  the  masses.  Among 
a  people  accustomed  to  the  hardships  of  pioneer  life 
and  compelled  to  govern  themselves,  there  was  no 
room  for  such  a  code,  and  the  proposed  constitution 
failed. 

66.  Georgia  was  founded  by  James  Oglethorpe,  in 
1733,  as  a  home  for  English  debtors. 

67.  The  size  of  farms  was  limited,  women  could  not 
inherit  land,  and  the  importation  of  rum  and  slaves 
was  prohibited.  These  prohibitions  occasioned  discon- 
tent and  impaired  the  financial  prosperity  of  the  colon- 
ists to  such  an  extent  that  the  trustees,  growino;  tired 
of  their  charge,  gave  up  their  claim,  and  Georgia  be- 
came a  royal  province. 

68.  By  French  Huguenots. 

69.  Eliot,  Marquette,  Allouez,  Hennepin. 


206       ANSAVERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   U.  S.  HISTORY. 

70.  Every  right  the  people  had  enjoyed  was  denied 
them,  while  their  taxes  were  largely  increased.  Con- 
trary to  the  wishes  of  the  people,  the  Church  of 
England  was  established,  and  the  meetings  of  the  peo- 
ple, except  for  the  election  of  town  officers,  were  pro- 
hibited, 

71.  The  Dutch  Reformed  Church  was  introduced 
into  New  York  about  1G14;  the  Episcof)al,  1608;  the 
Roman  Catholic,  in  1634;  the  Mennonites,  in  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1692;  the  Tunkers  or  General  Baptists, 
1719;  the  Moravians,  in  1741  ;  the  Shakers,  in  1774; 
the  Wesley  an  Methodists,  in  1766  ;  the  Universalists, 
in  1760. 

72.  With  few  exceptions,  every  settlement  made 
generous  provision  for  the  education  of  the  children. 

73.  King  James  having  fled  to  France  upon  the 
opening  of  the  English  Revolution  of  1688,  France 
espoused  his  cause,  and  declared  war  against  England. 
The  natural  jealousies  existing  between  the  subjects  of 
these  two  rival  powers  soon  developed  hostilities 
among  the  colonies. 

74.  The  influence  of  the  French  was  ever  exerted 
in  winning  the  Indians  to  their  side.  The  missionaries 
of  France  converted  many  of  the  tribes  to  the  Catholic 
faith.  French  traders  and  settlers  mingled  and  mar- 
ried among  the  Indians,  and  in  every  relation  affiliated 
with  them  upon  terms  of  far  greater  intimacy  than  did 
the  English. 

75.  The  attacks  and  massacres  of  Schenectady  and 
Haverhill  by  the  French  and  their  Indian  allies,  from 


ANSAVEKS   TO   QUESTIONS   OX  U.  S.  HISTORY.        207 

which  the  colonists  suffered  heavily  and  the  capture  of 
Port  Royal,  Acadia  by  the  English  colonists  under  Gov- 
ernor Phipps. 

76.  The  treaty  of  Ryswick,  by  which  each  party 
held  the  territory  it  had  at  the  beginning  of  the  war. 

77.  Queen  Anne's  War,  known  in  Europe  as  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  was  caused  by  the 
jealousy  of  William  III.,  at  the  growing  power  of  the 
Bourbon  family.  The  colonies  were  at  once  involved, 
and  from  1702  to  1713  experienced  all  the  horrors  of 
Indian  barbarity. 

78.  The  principal  events  of  Queen  Anne's  War  were 
the  capture  of  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Marks,  by  the 
South  Carolinians,  the  attack  on  Charleston  by  a 
French  fleet,  the  attack  and  massacre  of  Deerfield  and 
the  capture  of  Port  Royal.  The  war  was  terminated 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  by  which  Acadia  and  New- 
foundland were  ceded  to  Eno-land, 

o 

79.  King  George's  War,  caused  oy  the  conflicting 
territorial  claims  of  France  and  England,  opened  in 
1744,  and  continued  four  years.  Louisburg,  on  Cape 
Breton  Island,  was  wrested  from  the  French  by  the 
British  and  Colonists,  but  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  was  restored  to  the  French. 

80.  The  bittei-e.st  feelings  existed  between  the 
French  and  English  settlers  engendered  by  the  three 
preceding  wars. 

81.  The  French  occupied  and  claimed  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  valleys,  from  the  lakes  to  New  Orleans.  The 
English    were    scattered    along    the    Atlantic   Coast 


208       ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS   OX  U.  S.  HISTORY. 

between  Maine  and  Florida,  and  extending  westward 
to  the  Alleghanies,  but  claimed  the  territory  between 
their  western  settlements  and  the  Ohio  Eiver. 

82.  Washington  was  descended  from  an  old  English 
family  whose  original  name  was  Wessyngton,  mem- 
bers of  which  were  prominent  in  different  periods  of 
English  history.  His  great-grandfather,  who  came  to 
America  in  1657,  was  distinguished  in  the  early  Indian 
wars.  His  father,  Augustine  Washington,  died  when 
he  [George]  was  eleven  years  old. 

83.  Washington  by  nature  possessed  a  vigorous  and 
robust  constitution,  and  excelled  in  the  youthful  sports 
of  his  time.  In  his  studies  he  was  surpassed  by  none. 
His  manuscript-school  books,  still  preserved,  attest 
the  precision  and  order  of  his  mind.  Like  most  men 
who  have  excelled  in  military  tactics,  he  had  a  marked 
fondness  for  mathematics.  His  motives  and  morals 
were  as  pure  as  his  patriotism  was  incorruptible. 

84.  The  French  having  erected  forts  upon  territory 
claimed  by  the  English  in  western  Pennsylvania  for 
the  purpose  of  menacing  the  English  settlers  and 
breaking  up  the  trade  of  the  Ohio  Company,  Governor 
Dinwiddle,  under  orders  of  the  General  Assembly  of 
Virginia,  despatched  Washington  to  inquire  into  the 
cause  of  the  measures  the  French  had  pursued,  and  to 
ask  that  the  forts  be  evacuated  and  the  troops  re- 
moved. 

85.  The  capture  of  the  following:  Fort  du  Quesne, 
Louisburg,  Crown  Point  and  Ticonderoga,  Niagara,  and 
Quebec. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIOXS   OX   U.  S.  HISTOIIY.        209 

80.  (a)  It  commanded  the  Ohio  Elver  and  formed 
the  gateway  of  the  west,  (b)  General  Braddock. 
(c)  His  force  was  defeated  aud  himself  killed,  (d) 
It  was  captured  by  Washington  in  1758. 

87.  Generals  Amherst  and  Wolf  captured  Louisburg 
in  1758,  Crown  Point  and  Ticonderoga  were  evacuated 
at  the  approach  of  General  Amherst  in  1759,  and  the 
same  year  Niagara  was  taken  by  General  Johnson. 

88.  The  capture  of  Quebec  by  General  Wolf. 

89.  (a)  The  French  lost  their  entire  American 
possessions,  —  giving  to  England  all  east  of  the  ]\Iissis- 
sippi  except  two  small  islands,  south  of  Newfoundland, 
and  ceding  to  Spain  New  Orleans  and  all  her  territory 
west  of  the  ^lississippi.  (6)  England  obtained  con- 
trol of  all  North  America,  except  the  south  west,  and 
the  glory  of  a  renowned  military  conquest,  (c)  The 
Colonists  lost  30,000  men  and  spent  $16,000,000,  a 
third  only  of  which  was  returned  by  the  mother  coun- 
try;  but  the  burdens  of  the  war  gave  them  the 
strengt]i,  courage,  and  independence  which  developed 
the  revolution. 

90.  Washington,  Gates,  Arnold,  Morgan,  Putnam, 
Montgomery,  and  Stark? 

91.  About  two  and  a  half  millions. 

92.  Royal,  Charter  and  Proprietary. 

93.  Harvard,  William  and  Mary,  Yale,  Princeton, 
King's,  Brown,  Queen's,  Dartmouth,  and  Hampden 
Sidney.  William  and  Mary  was  the  only  college  Avhich 
received  a  donation  from  the  English  government, 
taking   its  name  from  its  principal  donors. 

14 


210       ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  U.  S.  HISTORY. 

94.  At  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  1639.  The 
"  Boston  News  Letter,"  issued  in  1704,  was  the  first 
permanent  newspaper. 

95.  The  people  of  New  England  were  until  the 
Revolution  more  homogeneous  than  those  of  other 
colonies.  The  influence  of  the  early  Puritans,  with 
their  rigid  adherence  to  the  literal  interpretation  of  the 
Scriptures,  shaped  every  motive  of  public  and  private 
action  ;  gaming,  racing,  theaters,  and  nearly  every  form 
of  frivolity  was  prohibited.  The  middle  colonies, 
though  peopled  by  representatives  from  nearly  every 
country  of  northern  Europe,  were  essentially  Dutch  in 
their  social  customs.  While  the  severest  laws  of  mor- 
.ality  were  inculcated  and  enforced,  the  people  enjoyed 
greater  freedom  and  means  of  pleasure  than  their 
northern  neighbors.  The  Southern  colonies  being 
more  sparsely  settled,  were  less  rigidly  governed  by 
those  religious  and  sumptuary  laws  peculiar  to  munici- 
pal corporations,  for  which  the  New  England  colonies 
were  early  distinguished.  Greater  freedom  of  conduct 
and  luxury  of  living  prevailed  than  elsewhere,  though 
church  attendance  was  obligatory  in  most  of  the 
Southern  colonies,  as  in  New  England. 

96.  Oct.  12,  1492,  Columbus  discovered  San  Sal- 
vador; May  23,  1607,  Jamestown  settled;  June  28, 
1619,  first  Representative  Assembly  in  America;  Dec. 

21,  1620,  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth ;  Feb. 

22,  1732,  Washington  born. 

97.  De  Soto  discovered  the  Mississippi  River,  1541 ; 
Leonard  Calvert    colonized   Maiyland,    1634;  Roger 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY.        211 

Williams  settled  Ehode  Island,  1636 ;  D'Iberville 
founded  Mobile,  1702;  Sir  Wm.  Pepperell,  in  com- 
mand of  colonists,  captured  Louisburg,  1745. 

98.  (a)  In  1696.     (b)  First  exported  in  1698. 

99.  In  1688  or  1690  at  Kaskaskia,  111.,  by  the 
French. 

100.  With  few  exceptions,  the  early  governors  of 
Virginia  were  aristocratic  and  tyrannical,  and  caring 
nothing  for  the  masses,  opposed  every  measure  calcu- 
lated to  elevate  the  people.  Governor  Berkley  is  cred- 
ited with  saying,  "I  thank  God  there  are  no  free 
schools  nor  printing  presses  here,  and  I  hope  we  shall 
not  have  them  these  hundred  years." 

101.  With  the  utmost  disregard  for  Colonial  inter- 
ests, the  government  sought  to  stifle  with  various  re- 
strictions the  manufacturing  and  commercial  spirit  of 
the  colonists. 

102.  The  only  books  published  in  America  before 
the  Revolution  were  a  few  histories,  religious  treatises, 
and  political  essaj^s.  Up  to  this  time  no  great  poem 
or  work  of  fiction  had  been  produced  in  America. 

103.  English,  Dutch,  Scotch,  Irish,  French,  Ne- 
groes, Germans,  Swedes,  and  a  limited  number  of 
Finns,  Norwegians  and  Spaniards. 

104.  They  were  descendants  of  men  who  had  fled 
from  oppression,  and  braved  and  suffered  the  hard- 
ships of  the  wilderness  for  the  blessings  of  civil  and 
religious  liberty.  They  possessed  a  freedom,  inher- 
ited from  these  ancestors,  as  responsible  as  it  was  en- 
joyable.    The  incompetence  of  the  British  officers  and 


212       ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIOXS   ON   U.  S.  HISTORY. 

the  heroism  and  prowess  of  their  own  officers  and  men 
during  the  wars  with  the  French  had  shown  them  the, 
power  which  they  possessed  within  themselves. 

105.  1st.  The  Navigation  Act.  2nd.  Writs  of 
Assistance,  authorizing  custom-house  officers  to  break 
open  stores,  dwellings,  and  ships,  in  search  of  mer- 
chandise on  which  it  was  suspected  no  duty  had  been 
paid.  3rd.  The  Stamp  Act,  requiring  all  legal  in- 
struments of  writing,  as  notes,  deeds,  bonds,  and  even 
newspapers,  almanacs,  and  other  printed  matter  to  be 
stamped.  4th.  The  Boston  Massacre.  5th.  The 
Boston  Tea  Party,  and  the  Boston  Port  Bill.  6th. 
The  Trade  Restrictions  imposed  upon  the  colonies 
by  the  English  government.  7th.  The  General 
Treatment  of  the  settlers  as  an  inferior  class  of 
people. 

106.  T.\XATiON  Without  Representation.  The 
British  government  attempted  to  tax  the  colonies  with- 
out their  consent  in  order  to  raise  money  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  the  French  and  Indian  War. 

107.  James  Otis,  in  Boston,  when  he  said  in  a 
speech  in  reference  to  the  Writs  of  Assistance,  "  To 
my  dying  day  I  will  oppose,  with  all  the  powers  and 
faculties  God  has  given  me,  all  such  instruments  of 
slavery  on  the  one  hand,  and  villainy  on  the  other." 

108.  The  houses  of  stamp  officers  were  mobbed, 
prominent  officials  were  hung  in  effigy;  people  agreed 
to  use  no  article  of  British  manufacture ;  associations, 
called  the  "Sons  of  Liberty,"  were  formed  for  the 
purpose   of  resisting  the  stamp  law.     The  day   upon 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY.        213 

Avnich  the  stamp  act  was  to  go  into  effect  **  was  ob- 
served as  a  day  of  mourning,"  and  in  everyway  pos- 
sible the  people  manifested  their  determination  to 
resist  the  oppression  of  the  British  Government. 

109.  (a)  The  Mutiny  Act  required  the  colonies  to 
provide  British  soldiers  with  quarters  and  supplies. 
(b)  The  government,  in  order  to  quell  the  rebellious 
spirit  of  the  colonists  determined  to  place  a  military 
force  among  them,  (c)  The  people  were  indignant ; 
they  thought  it  bad  enough  to  be  taxed,  but  to  be  com- 
pelled to  feed  and  shelter  their  oppressors  seemed  be- 
yond all  endurance.  Most  of  the  colonial  assemblies 
absolutely  refused  to  furnish  the  shelter  or  subsist- 
ence. 

110.  Faneuil  Hall  was  erected  by  Peter  Faneuil  in 
1742.  It  originally  comprised  a  market  place  on  the 
ground  floor  and  a  town  hall  above.  It  was  the  ren- 
dezvous of  the  Revolutionary  spirits  for  which  reason 
it  has  been  called  the  "  Cradle  of  Liberty." 

111.  The  Tories  supported  the  British  government, 
the  Whigs  opposed  it. 

112.  By  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  passed  by  Parliament, 
by  which  ships  were  forbidden  to  take  in  or  discharge 
their  cargoes  at  the  port  of  Boston. 

113.  The  first  was  convened  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in 
1754,  for  the  purpose  of  adopting  a  plan  of  union 
against  the  French  and  Indians.  The  second,  rej^re- 
senting  nine  colonies,  met  in  New  York,  October,  1765, 
for  the  purpose  of  remonstrating  against  the  Stamp 
Act.     The  third,   known  as  the  "  First   Continental 


214       ANSWERS   TO   QUKSTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY. 

Congress,"  met  in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  5,  1774,  to  con- 
cert a  plan  of  action  and  union  against  the  tyrannical 
measures  of  Parliament. 

114.  (a)  The  battle  of  Lexington  April  19,  1775. 
(5)  The  capture  of  military  stores  collected  at  Con- 
cord,    (c)  The  complete  union  of  the  colonies. 

115.  At  Philadelphia,  May  10,  1775.  It  voted  to 
raise  20,000  men  and  appointed  General  Washington 
:;cnimander-in-chief .  A  petition  to  the  King  was  o*-- 
dered  and  sent,  but  George  III.,  regarding  them  as 
rebels,  refused  to  be  petitioned. 

116.  To  prevent  the  British  using  Canada  as  a  ren- 
dezvous and  base  of  supply,  an  expedition  under  Gen- 
erals Schuyler,  Montgomery,  and  Arnold  was  sent  to 
occupy  the  province.  St.  Johns  and  Montreal  were 
captured  by  Montgomery;  but  in  the  attack  on  Que- 
bec, the  Americans  were  repulsed  with  the  loss  of 
General  Montgomery,  and  the  expedition  proved  a 
failure. 

117.  British  evacuation  of  Boston;  Attack  on  Fort 
Moultrie ;  Battles  of  Long  Island,  White  Plains,  and 
Trenton. 

118.  By  Richard  Henry  Lee,  June  7,  1776. 

119.  («)  By  Thomas  Jefferson,  (b)  July  4,  1776, 
by  a  majority  of  one  colony,  (c)  By  all  members 
present,  —  56.  (d)  It  was  everywhere  in  the  States 
just  formed  greeted  with  the  firing  of  cannon,  the 
ringing  of  bells,  and  other  demonstrations  of  exulta- 
tion. 

120.  In  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    U.  S.  HISTORY.        215 

121.  La  Fayette,  Barons  de  Kalb  and  Steuben, 
Count  Pulaski,  and  Tliaddcus  Kosciusko. 

122.  (a)  Burgoyne's  purpose  was  to  force  his  way 
from  Canada  to  New  York,  and  thus  cut  off  New  Eng- 
land from  the  other  colonies.  (6)  His  force  consisted 
of  10,000  regulars,  Canadians  and  Indians. 

123.  By  the  two  battles  of  Saratoga,  Sept.  19  and 
Oct.  7,  1777,  in  the  latter  of  which  he  was  so  com- 
pletely worsted  that  he  was  compelled  to  surrender  his 
entire  army. 

124.  Generals  Schuyler,  Gates,  Lincoln,  Arnold, 
Morgan,  Stark,  and  Kosciusko. 

125.  June  20,  1782. 

126.  While  Washington  was  encamped  at  Valley 
Forge,  using  every  means  to  keep  the  army  together, 
through  that  long,  gloomy  winter,  intrigues  were  on  foot 
to  supersede  him  in  command  by  friends  of  Gates,  whose 
brilliant  success  was  contrasted  with  the  late  reverses 
of  Washington.  These  were  principally  conducted  by 
one  General  Conway.  So  great  was  the  indignation 
upon  this  becoming  known  that  the  instigators  were 
ashamed  to  acknowledge  the  part  they  had  taken  in 
the  intrigue. 

127.  In  a  letter  written  by  Washington  at  Valley 
Forge,  he  says:  "  Without  arrogance,  or  the  smallest 
deviation  from  truth,  it  may  be  said  that  no  history, 
now  extant,  can  furnish  an  instance  of  an  army  suffer- 
ing such  hardships  as  ours  has  done,  bearing  them  with 
the  same  patience  and  fortitude." 


216       ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    OX   U.  S.  HISTORY. 

128.  The  untiring  exertions  of  Benjamin  Franklin 
and  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne. 

129.  Without  the  assistance  of  France  in  money, 
ships,  and  troops,  it  is  scarcely  probable  that  the  colo- 
nies would  have  succeeded  without  a  struggle  greatly 
prolonged. 

130.  Princeton,  Bennington,  Brandywine,  Saratoga, 
Germantown. 

131.  (ff)  In  1775,  and  in  each  year  following  till 
1780,  Congress  issued  bills  of  credit,  called  continen- 
tal money,  till  the  amount  reached  $200,000,000.  (5) 
For  want  of  confidence  of  the  people  in  the  redemp- 
tion of  these  bills,  and  the  flooding  of  the  country 
with  counterfeits  by  the  British,  this  money  depreci- 
ated in  value  till  1 100  in  bills  were  worth  but  a  dollar 
in  specie. 

132.  Marion,  Sumter,  Pickens,  Lee  and  Hayne. 

133.  (a)  Indebtedness  and  disgrace  caused  by  ex- 
travagance, dissipation,  and  gambling,  and  charges  re- 
sulting in  a  reprimand  by  Washington,  inflamed  him 
to  resentment.  (5)  While  it  temporarily  grieved  the 
Americans  and  caused  apprehensions  of  more  serious 
results,  it  united  the  army  and  people  in  a  more  vigor- 
ous effort  in  expelling  the  British,  (c)  His  reward 
was  £6,315,  a  colonelcy  in  the  English  army,  and  the 
contempt  of  everybody. 

13-4.  ((/)  The  revolt  of  the  Pennsjdvania  and  New 
Jersey  troops  on  account  of  non-payment  for  service 
and  insufiicient  supplies  and  clothing.  (6)  Agents  of 
Sir  Henry  Clinton  offered  the  mutineers  large  rewards 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY.        217 

to  join  the  British  army ;  but  while  they  were  in  revolt, 
they  were  not  traitors  ;  they  arrested  the  emissaries 
and  gave  them  up  as  spies. 

135.  Battle  of  Monmouth,  arrival  of  the  French 
fleet,  capture  of  Savannah  by  the  British. 

136.  Stony  Point,  PaulJones's Naval  battle,  repulse 
of  the  Americans  and  French  at  Savannah. 

137.  Robert  Morris  of  Pennsylvania. 

138.  He  never  gained  a  decided  victory,  but  his  de- 
feats had  all  the  effect  of  success.  Again,  it  is  to  be 
noticed  that  the  British  retreated  after  each  victory 
they  claimed,  and  only  pursued  the  Americans  after 
their  defeat  by  Morgan  at  the  Cowpens. 

139.  Surrender  of  Charleston  to  the  British,  battles 
of  Hanging  Rock,  Camden,  and  King's  Mountain. 

140.  Battle  of  the  Cowpens,  Greene's  Retreat,  bat- 
tles of  Guilford  C<':>urt  House,  and  Eutaw  Springs,  and 
Surrender  of  Cornwallis,  Oct.  19,  1781. 

141.  (ff)  By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  September  3, 
1783.  (b)  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin,  John 
Jay,  Henry  Laurens,  and  Thomas  Jefferson,  though 
the  latter  did  not  serve. 

142.  Many  of  the  officers  at  the  close  of  the  Revo- 
lution, doubted  the  ability  of  the  people  to  form  an 
efficient  government ;  and  many  and  urgent  were  the 
proposals  made  to  Washington  that  a  monarchy  be  es- 
tablished and  he  accept  the  crown.  Washington  indig- 
nantly repelled  the  offer. 

143.  (a)  The  "Articles  of  Confederation  "  consti- 
tuted the  bond  of  union  of  the  States  which  declared 


218       AXSWEBS  TO   QCESTIO.VS  OS  U.  S.  HISTORY. 

themselves  independent  of  Great  Britain,  (b)  They 
were  adopted  by  Congress,  November  15,  1777.  (c) 
Ac<x»rdingto  their  own  provisions  they  were  not  bind- 
ing until  ratified  by  all  the  States,  which  did  not  occur 
till  iLirch  1,  1781.  (d)  By  these  articles  Congress 
had  power  to  declare  war  and  contract  debts,  but  could 
not  rai^e  a  dollar  by  taxation.  It  could  advise  all 
things,  but  could  enforce  nothing. 

l-i-l:.  The  manifest  failure  of  the  Articles  of  Con. 
federation,  the  deranged  condition  of  the  finances  of 
the  country,  and  the  numerous  controversies  verging 
ujwn  oi>en  hostilities  between  several  of  the  States,  con- 
vinced the  people  that  immediate  steps  must  be  taken 
to  revise  the  bond  by  which  the  States  were  united. 
After  several  attempts  to  secure  a  meeting  of  represen- 
tatives from  the  several  States,  on  May  25,  1787,  the 
delegates  present  organized  by  electing  George  Wash- 
ington president  of  the  Convention,  and  proceeded  at 
once  to  the  work  in  hand.  The  idea  of  revision  was 
early  abandoned ;  and  after  a  deliberation  of  four 
months  and  three  days,  the  Constitution  as  we  have  it 
to-day,  except  the  Amendments  and  the  manner  of 
electing  the  President,  was  published  to  the  people. 

145.  («)  Federalists  and  Anti-Federalists.  (A) 
The  Federalists  favored  the  Constitution  and  sought  to 
increase  the  jwwers  of  the  national  government,  and 
thus  strengthen  the  Union  at  home  and  abroad.  The 
Anti-FederaUsts  opposed  the  Constitution  on  the 
ground  that  it  gave  too  much  authority  to  Congress, 
thus  weakening  the  power  of  the  States  and  might 


ANSWKUS   TO   QIJ[:STI()\S    O.V    IL  H.  IIISTOIIV.        219 

altiiii.'itely  lead  to  the  cslahlislimciit  of  a  nioiiarcliy. 
(c)  Alexander  ILunilton,  .loliii  Jay,  and  James  Madi- 
son W(!re  among  tlic  most  prominent  advoeates  of  tlie 
CoJistitution. 

146.  (a)  Mareli  4,  1781).  (h)  Xortli  Cai-olinn  and 
Rhode  Island,  (c)  George  Wasiiington,  by  a  unani- 
mous vote. 

147.  The  change  of  occupation,  associations  and 
general  practice  of  the  people  produced  a  greatcsr 
looseness  in  morals  and  manners.  Ttiat  high  sense  of 
integrity  which  had  existed  before  the  war,  gave  place 
to  more  slippery  notions  of  honesty  and  honor.  The 
atheistical  philosophy,  which  was  preparing  the  way 
for  the  horrors  of  the  French  revolution,  spread  over 
the  country  and  threatened  to  wreck  the  religious  sen- 
timents of  the  people.  Commerce  was  entirely  ne- 
glected, but  cut  off  from  for(Mgn  supply,  the  people 
were  compelled  to  look  to  their  own  ing(;nuity  for  the 
manufacture  of  those  articles  needed  in  the  struggle, 
and  for  the  usual  avocations  of  life. 

148.  Thomas  Jefferson,  Secretary  of  State  (then 
styled  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs);  Henry  Knox, 
Secretary  of  War;  Alexander  Kamilton,  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury;  and  Edmund  Kandolph,  Attorney 
General. 

141>.  The  treasury  was  empty  and  tlu;  government 
without  credit.  The  fi-ontier  was  ravaged  by  hostile 
Indians.  Spain  refused  tlie  navigation  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  P^ngland  ignored  all  commercial  treaties  thus 
far  proposed. 


220       ANSAVERS  TO   QUESTIONS   ON  TJ.  S.  HISTORY. 

150.  (a)  Hamilton  proposed  the  payment  of  the 
national  debt,  foreign  and  domestic,  and  the  assump- 
tion of  the  State  debts  contracted  during  the  war. 
(b)  These  measures  at  once  gave  confidence  in  the 
stability  and  integrity  of  the  government. 

151.  At  the  second  session  of  Congress  an  act  was 
passed  fixing  the  seat  of  government  after  the  year 
1800  on  the  Potomac  River.  In  accordance  with  this 
act,  Maryland  and  Virginia  ceded  to  the  U.  S.  a  tract 
of  land  10  miles  square  which  was  termed  the  "  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia."  The  City  of  Washington  was 
founded  on  the  Maryland  side  in  1792,  Washington 
himself  laid  the  cornerstone  of  the  capitol.  The  Vir- 
ginia portion,  containing  forty  square  miles,  was  re- 
ceded to  that  State  in  1846. 

152.  (a)  The  Eepublican  and  Federalist  parties. 
(b)  Thomas  Jefferson  and  Edmund  Randolph  were  the 
the  leaders  of  the  Republican  party,  Alexander  Ham- 
ilton and  John  Adams  of  the  Federalists. 

153.  A  majority  of  the  people,  grateful  for  the  aid 
of  France  in  the  American  Revolution,  fervently  de- 
sired the  success  of  the  French  Republic.  The  Presi- 
dent considering  the  true  policy  of  this  country  was 
non-interference  in  the  affairs  of  Europe,  issued  a 
proclamation  of  neutrality. 

154.  (a)  The  Alien  and  Sedition  laws  passed  in 
1798.  (b)  The  Alien  law  authorized  the  President  to 
order  any  alien,  whom  he  should  judge  dangerous  to 
the  United  States,  to  leave  the  country.  Under  the 
Sedition  law,  any  person  could  be  punished,  by  fine 


ANSWERS   TO  QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY.        221 

or  imprisonment,  for  speaking,  writing,  or  publishing 
anything  false  or  malicious  against  the  government, 
the  President,  or  Congress. 

155.  The  legislatures  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  in 
response  to  the  passage  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws, 
asserted  that  a  State  had  a  right  to  judge  for  itself 
how  far  the  national  authority  should  be  considered 
binding. 

156.  Louisiana  was  purchased  from  France  in  1803 
for  fifteen  million  dollars. 

157.  In  August,  1807,  by  Robert  Fulton,  who  made 
the  voyage  from  New  York  to  Albany  in  the  first 
steamboat,  the  Clermont. 

158.  The  aggressions  committed  by  British  cruisers 
in  executing  the  "  Orders  in  Council,''  in  maintaining 
the  right  of  search  for  alleged  British  subjects,  and  the 
impressment  of  American  seamen,  often  taken  from 
American  vessels. 

159.  (a)  The  country  was  poorly  prepared  for 
war.  The  army  numbered  but  ten  thousand  men, 
while  to  contend  with  the  formidable  naval  power  of 
England,  which  included  a  thousand  vessels,  we  could 
boast  but  ten  frigates  and  a  few  old  worthless  gunboats. 
{b)  The  Federalists. 

160.  To  invade  and  conquer  Canada. 

161.  The  general  result  of  the  military  expeditions 
into  Canada  was  disastrous  to  the  Americans,  while  the 
naval  engagements  were  almost  without  exception  suc- 
cessful. 


222       ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY. 

162.  The  Army  of  the  West,  under  General  Har- 
rison, for  the  recovery  of  Michigan  ;  the  Army  of  the 
Center,  under  General  Dearborn,* for  the  invasion  of 
Canada  by  the  way  of  Niagara  River,  and  the  Army 
of  the  North,  under  General  Wade  Hampden^  for  the 
protection  of  the  northern  frontier  and  ultimate 
cooperation  with  the  other  armies  in  the  invasion  of 
Canada. 

163.  Though  New  England  generally  opposed  the 
War  of  1812,  Massachusetts  took  the  lead,  considering 
it  ruinous  to  the  interests  of  the  country,  wrong  in  its 
origin,  and  in  its  progress,  characterized  by  the  gross- 
est mismanagement. 

164.  («)  A  convention  of  delegates  from  most  of 
the  New  England  States,  which  met  at  Hartford,  Ct., 
Dec.  15,  1814.  (b)  The  object  was  to  consider  the 
condition  of  the  States  represented  with  reference  to 
the  prosecution  of  the  war.  (c)  Beyond  the  recom- 
mendation of  several  amendments  nothing  was  done. 

165.  Perry's  Victory,  battles  of  the  Thames, 
Lundy's  Lane,  Plattsburg,  and  New  Orleans. 

166.  By  the  treaty  of  Ghent,  Dec.  24,  1814. 

167.  While  the  terms  of  the  treaty  left  the  questions 
of  the  war  unsettled,  the  claims  of  England  were 
never  renewed.  The  United  States  gained  the  respect 
of  European  nations  and  at  once  took  her  place  among 
the  leading  powers  of  the  world. 

168.  Restoration  of  the  public  credit ;  war  with  the 
Indians  in   the  Northwest  Territory;  Jay's  Treaty; 


Answers  to  questions  on  u.  s.  history.      223 

admission  to  the  Union  of  Vermont,  Kentucky,  and 
Tennessee  ;  and  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin. 

169.  Hostilities  with  France,  death  of  Washington, 
and  removal  of  the  national  capital  to  Washington. 

170.  The  Federalist  party  had  become  so  weakened 
by  its  opposition  to  the  War  of  1812,  that  Monroe, 
the  Republican  candidate,  was  elected  almost  unani- 
mously. 

171.  (a)  The  Whig  party  succeeded  the  Federalist; 
while  the  Republican  party  became  known  as  the 
Democratic  party.  (6)  The  Whigs  advocated  a  pro- 
tective tariff  and  a  general  system  of  internal  im- 
provements; the  Democrats  opposed  these. 

172.  The  Seminole  war;  the  purchase  of  Florida ; 
the  admission  of  Mississippi,  lUinois,  Alabama,  Maine, 
and  Missouri  into  the  Union ;  adoption  of  the  "Mis- 
souri Compromise  "  and  La  Fayette's  visit. 

173.  First  ship  built  in  New  England  —  the  "  Bless- 
ing of  the  Bay,"  July  4,  1631  ;  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, July  4,  1776;  death  of  Adams  and  Jeffer- 
son, July  4,  1826  ;  death  of  James  Monroe,  July  4, 
1831 ;   surrender  of  Vicksburg,  July  4,  1863. 

174.  Pending  the  admission  of  Missouri,  violent 
debate  arose  on  the  question  whether  it  should  be  a 
free  or  a  slave  State.  It  was  finally  agreed  in  1820 
that  Missouri  might  come  in  as  a  slave  State,  but  that 
slavery  should  be  prohibited  in  all  territory,  belonging 
to  the  United  States,  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
north  of  parallel  36°  30'. 


224       ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   U.  S.  HISTORY. 

175.  In  1819,  the  American  Government  agreeing 
to  pay  to  citizens  of  the  United  States  five  million 
dollars,  due  them  from  Spain,  and  give  up  all  claim  to 
the  present  State  of  Texas. 

176.  In  President  Monroe's  annual  message,  in 
1823,  alluding  to  the  South  American  colonies,  re- 
cently recognized  as  sovereign  powers,  he  declared 
that  "  the  American  continents,  by  the  free  and  inde- 
pendent position  which  they  have  assumed  and  main- 
tained, are  henceforth  not  to  be  considered  as  subjects 
for  future  colonization  by  any  European  powers." 

177.  Four  candidates  were  in  the  field,  and  no  one 
receiving  a  majority  of  the  electoral  vote,  John  Q. 
Adams  was  elected  by  the  House  of  Representatives. 

178.  Both  were  early  enlistled  in  their  country's 
cause.  Both  were  bold,  ardent,  unyielding  patriots. 
They  were  both  members  of  the  committee  appointed 
to  prepare  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  they 
formed  the  sub-committee  appointed  by  the  other 
members  to  make  the  draft  of  it.  While  Jefferson 
was  the  author  of  the  Declaration,  Adams  was  its  great 
advocate  on  the  floor  of  Congress.  Both  had  been 
ministers  abroad,  both  vice-presidents,  and  both 
presidents,  and  both  died  on  July  4,  1826 

179.  For  unprecedented  internal  improvements. 
During  Mr.  Adams's  presidency  the  Erie  Canal  was 
opened,  in  1827  the  first  railroad  was  completed  in 
Quincy,  Mass.;  though  steam  locomotives  were  not 
used  till  1829. 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS   ON    U.  S.  HISTORY.       225 

180.  The  removal  of  officials  belonging  to  an  oppo- 
site party  and  appointing  political  adherents. 

181.  France  had  acknowledged  the  claim  of  the 
United  States  to  five  million  dollars,  but  refusing  to 
make  the  payment,  President  Jackson  proposed  that 
reprisals  should  be  made  upon  the  French  property 
until  the  claim  was  paid. 

182.  In  1832. 

183  The  political  leaders  of  South  Carolina,  chief 
of  whom  were  Eobert  Y.  Hayne,  senator  from  that 
State,  and  John  C.  Calhoun,  then  vice-president,  held 
that  it  is  the  right  of  a  State  to  determine  for  itself 
how  far  it  would  yield  obedience  to  the  laws  of  the 
United  States.  South  Carolina  asserting  the  principle 
of  a  protective  tariff  to  be  unjust  and  unconstitutional, 
called  a  convention,  which,  November  24,  1832,  passed 
an  ordinance  of  nullification,  declaring  the  tariff  laws 
null  and  void.  Preparations  were  made  to  resist  the 
enforcement  of  these  laws  in  that  State,  but  the 
prompt  action  of  the  President,  and  a  compromise 
tariff  passed  by  Congress,  averted  the  threatened 
calamity. 

18-1.  1st.  The  flooding  of  the  country  with  a  large 
amount  of  paper  currency  by  the  banks  holding  the 
public  funds,  thus  favoring  an  unwarrantable  spirit  of 
speculation.  2nd.  The  withdrawal  of  the  surplus 
public  funds  from  the  banks  to  be  distributed  among 
the  States,  causing  a  sudden  contraction  of  the  specie 
circulation  from  the  inability  of  the  banks  to  meet  the 
demand.     3rd.  The  President's  specie  circular,  order- 

15 


226       ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON   U.  S.  HISTORY. 

ing  payment  for  public  lands  to  be  made  in  gold  and 
silver.  4th.  Heavy  importations,  requiring  payment 
in  gold. 

185.  In  1842,  by  Daniel  Webster  and  Lord  Ash- 
burton. 

186.  In  vetoing  the  measures  of  the  party  which 
had  elected  him  to  office. 

187.  1st.  That  Texas  should  adopt  a  constitution, 
and  lay  it  before  Congress  on  or  before  January  1, 
1846.  2nd.  That  all  mines,  minerals,  fortifications, 
arms,  navy,  etc.,  should  be  ceded  to  the  United  Scates. 
3rd.  That  new  States  might  hereafter  be  formed  out 
of  said  territory. 

188.  First,  an  unwillingness  to  involve  the  country 
in  a  war  with  Mexico,  owing  to  unsettled  disputes 
regarding  the  boundary  of  Texas ;  and,  second,  anti- 
slavery  men  opposed  its  annexation  on  the  ground 
that  Texas  being  slave  territory,  its  admission  would 
extend  the  area  of  slavery. 

189.  (a)  The  United  States  founded  their  claim  to 
Oregon  upon  the  expeditions  and  explorations  of  Cap- 
tain Gray,  in  1792,  and  Lewis  and  Clark  in  1804-5, 
and  on  the  purchase  from  Spain  of  her  rights  to  that 
territory.  The  English  based  their  claim  upon  the 
operation  of  British  fur  companies  within  the  terri- 
tory, (b)  The  present  boundary  Avas  established  by 
treaty  in  1846. 

190.  (a)  The  annexation  of  Texas,  (b)  By  an 
action  in  which  Captain  Thornton,  with  some  fifty  dra- 
goons, was  captured,  April  26,  1846,  though  war  wa§ 


ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY.        227 

not  formally  declared  till  May  11.  (c)  Till  February 
2,  1848.  (d)  By  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo, 
(e)  The  United  States  gained  a  vast  territory,  extend- 
ing south  to  the  Gila  Eiver  and  west  to  the  Pacific, 
and  agreed  to  pay  Mexico  fifteen  million  dollars,  and 
to  assume  her  debts  due  to  American  citizens  to  the 
amount  of  three  million  more. 

191.  All  the  important  battles. 

192.  (a)  1st.  The  people  of  the  slave  States  con- 
tended that  the  territory  acquired  by  the  blood  and  trea- 
sure of  the  whole  Union  from  Mexico  should  be  open  to 
slaveholders  with  their  slaves  as  well  as  with  their 
other  property.  2nd.  California  asked  admission  as  a 
free  State,  although  a  portion  of  her  territory  lay 
south  of  the  proposed  line  of  compromise  in  which 
slavery  should  be  permitted.  3rd.  Petitions  were 
pouring  in  from  the  north  praying  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  4th.  The  south 
was  greatly  exasperated  by  the  assistance  rendered 
fugitive  slaves  to  escape.  5th.  Texas  set  up  a  claim 
to  a  part  of  the  acquired  territory,  which  if  allowed, 
would  extend  slavery  to  the  region  claimed,  (b)  By 
the  passage  of  the  Omnibus  Bill. 

193.  1st.  California  was  to  be  admitted  as  a  free 
State.  2nd.  Utah  and  New  Mexico  were  to  be  formed 
as  territories  without  any  provision  concerning  slavery. 
3rd.  Texas  was  to  be  paid  ten  million  dollars  to  give  up 
her  claim  on  New  Mexico.  4th.  The  slave  trade  was 
to  be  abolished  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  5th.  A 
Fugitive  Slave  Law  was  to  be  enacted  providing  for 


228       ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS  ON  U.  S.  HISTORY. 

the  return  to  their  owners  of  slaves  escaping  to  a  free 
State. 

1D4.  (a)  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  provided  for 
the  organization  of  two  territories  —  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  in  which  the  question  whether  they  should 
be  free  or  slave,  should  be  determined  in  each  territory 
by  its  inhabitants,  (b)  Its  author  was  Stephen  A. 
Douglas,  (c)  Its  legal  effect  was  the  repeal  of  the 
Missouri  Compromise,  (d)  Its  political  effect  was 
the  most  bitter  sectional  strife  the  country  had  known. 

195.  The  rescinding  of  the  Missouri  Compromise, 
by  the  passage  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  in  May, 
1855. 

196.  (1.)  The  Federalists.  (2.)  Eepublicans. 
(3.)  Democrats.  (4.)  Whigs.  (5.)  Free  Soilers. 
(6.)  Republicans  (opposed  to  the  extension  of 
slavery).  (7.)  Americans  or  Know-Nothings.  (8.) 
Constitutional  Union  Party.  (  9. )  Liberal  Republicans. 
(10.)  National  Greenbackers.  (11.)  Prohibitionists. 

197.  The  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  civil 
war  in  Kansas,  and  treaty  with  Japan. 

198.  (a)  Dred  Scott  and  his  wife  were  slaves 
belonging  to  a  United  States  army  surgeon,  who  took 
them  into  Illinois  and  afterwards  to  United  States 
territory  north  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  line. 
Claiming  their  freedom  on  the  ground  that  they  had 
been  carried  into  free  territory  by  their  master,  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court,  in  1857,  through  Chief- 
Justice  Taney,  declared  that  slave-owners  might  take 
their  slaves  into  any  State  of  the  Union  without  for- 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   U.  S.  HISTORY.        229 

feiting  authority  over  thera.  (b)  At  the  north  it 
produced  great  indignation,  the  effect  being  it  was 
considered,  the  removal  of  the  last  barrier  to  the  leo-al 
extension  of  slavery  throughout  the  country.  The 
people  of  the  south  regarded  it  as  only  a  right  guaran- 
teed them  by  the  Constitution. 

199.  The  southern  leaders  declared  after  the  election 
of  j\Ir.  Lincoln  that  he  was  a  sectional  candidate, 
pledged  to  the  overthrow  of  slavery,  and  assuming  the 
right  of  secession,  declared  that  its  exercise  was  nec- 
essary to  protect  them  from  aggression  on  the  part  of 
the  Federal  Government. 

200.  South  Carolina,  Mississippi,  Florma,  Alabama, 
Georgia,  Louisiana  and  Texas,  organized  the  govern- 
ment; Virginia,  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  and  North 
Carolina,  entered  the  confederation  later  in  the  spring. 

201.  (a)  April  14,  18G1,  by  the  capture  of  Fort 
Sumter,  by  the  Secessionists,  (b)  April  2(),  1865, 
by  the  surrender  of  Johnston's  army  to  Sherman, 
though  the  rebel  forces  west  of  the  Mississippi  did  not 
surrender  till  May  26. 

202.  Their  interest  in  the  cotton  product  of  the 
South,  together  with  their  jealousy  of  the  growing 
power  of  United  States,  caused  them  to  accord  to  the 
Southern  Confederacy  the  rights  of  belligerents,  and 
to  furnish  them  aid  in  the  way  of  arms  and  money. 

203.  With  the  exception  of  the  victories  of  the 
Union  army  in  West  Virginia,  the  occupancy  of  Mis- 
souri by  Union  forces,  and  the  capture  of  Hatteras 
Inlet,   North  Carolina,  and  the  forts  at   Port  Eoyal 


230       ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   U.  S.  HISTORY. 

Entrance,  South  Carolina,  by  the  Union  navy  and 
army,  the  military  advantage  was  entirely  with  the 
Confederates. 

204.  1st.  To  confine  the  military  operations  within 
the  Confederate  States.  2nd,  To  enforce  the  block- 
ade of  the  Southern  ports.  3rd.  To  open  the  Mis- 
sissippi River.  4th.  To  capture  Richmond,  the 
Confederate  capital. 

205.  The  result  of  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  convinced 
the  Northern  people  that  the  preservation  of  the  Union 
could  be  accomplished  only  by  the  most  gigantic 
struggle.  After  this  battle  extraordinary  efforts, 
extreme  measures  and  unflinching  determination  char- 
acterized every  act  of  the  people,  the  government  and 
the  army  till  the  great  work  was  completed. 

206.  The  Union  victories  of  18G2  were  Fort  Donel- 
son.  Pea  Ridge,  Shiloh,  Antietam,  lukaand  Murfrees- 
boro;  the  principal  Confederate  victories  were  the 
Seven-Days'  battles  before  Richmond,  Second  Battle 
of  Bull  Run,  Cedar  Mountain  and  Fredricksburg. 

207.  The  Union  army  numbered  about  700,000 
men,  while  that  of  the  Confederate  was  about  half  this 
number. 

208.  (a)  January  1,  1863,  by  President  Lincoln. 
(6)  It  included  all  slaves  in  the  insurgent  States 
except  such  parts  of  Louisiana  and  Virginia  as  were 
under  national  authority,  (c)  As  the  legitimate 
issue  of  the  rebellion. 

209.  (a)  Two.  (b)  The  first  was  checked  by  the 
battle  of  Antietam,  Sept.  17,  1862  ;  the  second  by  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  July  1,  2,  and  3,  1863. 


ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY.        231 

210.  (a)  July  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  1803.  (/>)  The  battle 
of  Gettysburg  and  surrender  of  Vieksburg,  July  4,  by 
which  the  Confederates  lost  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
prisoners,  60,000  men. 

211.  Chickaniaujra  and  Chancellorsville. 

212.  To  divide  the  Confederacy  and  ultimately  to 
co()pcrnte  in  the  attack  on  Richmond  from  the  South. 

213.  1st.  Ignorance  of  the  real  intentions  of  the 
Southern  leaders.  2nd.  Absence  of  any  definite 
preparation  in  the  beginning.  3rd.  Want  of  sufficient 
number  of  trained  officers.  4th  The  prudence,  tact, 
and  military  skill  of  the  Confederate  officers  and  valor 
of  the  Southern  soldiers,  5th.  The  need  of  a  com- 
manding officer  for  the  first  three  years,  regulating  the 
movements  of  the  different  armies  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  a  definite  purpose. 

214.  The  capture  of  Port  Eoyal  Entrance,  the  bat- 
tle between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac,  the  de- 
struction of  the  Alabama  by  the  Kearsarge,  and  the 
capture  of  the  forts  in  Mobile  Bay  by  Farragut. 

215.  Irwin  McDowell,  George  B.  McClellan,  John 
Pope,  Ambrose  E.  Burnside,  Joseph  Hooker,  George 
G.  Meade,  and  U.  S.  Grant. 

216.  While  thousands  of  men  were  fighting  for  the 
preservation  of  the  Union  in  the  national  armies,  there 
were  many  in  the  North  who  sympathized  with  the 
Southern  insurgents.  These,  with  emissaries  from  the 
South,  too  cowardly  to  enter  the  ranks,  sought  every 
opportunity  to  thwart  the  effoi-ts  of  the  government  in 
subduing  the  rebellion.     During  the  draft  for  troops 


232       ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  U.  S.  HISTORY. 

in  New  York  and  elsewhere,  forcible  resistance  was  at- 
tempted resulting  in  terrible  riots,  causing  the  destruc- 
tion of  millions  of  property  and  many  lives. 

217.  2,690,000  men. 

218.  (a)  May  1,  1865,  when  the  number  under 
arms  was  1,000,000  men.  (b)  The  daily  expense  at 
this  time  was  $3,500,000  per  day. 

219.  Including  pensions  up  to  1883,  the  amount  was 
not  far  from  $4,000,000,000. 

220.  The  North  emerged  from  the  war  richer  and 
stronger  than  ever  before  ;  while  the  South  was  re- 
duced  to  poverty  and  greatly  diminished  in  numbers. 

221.  1st.  By  a  system  of  internal  revenue,  as  taxes 
on  incomes,  manufactures,  etc.  2nd.  By  the  issuing 
of  $500,000,000  treasury  notes  as  a  circulating  medium. 
3rd.  By  loans  of  various  forms,  for  which  the  bonds 
of  the  U.  S.  were  given. 

222.  B}'-  the  13th  Amendment,  declared  adopted  by 
the  States  as  a  part  of  the  Constitution,  December  18, 
1865. 

223.  1st.  Equal  civil  rights  shall  be  guaranteed  to 
all,  without  regard  to  race  or  color.  2nd.  Keprcsen- 
tation  in  each  State  shall  be  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  voters.  3rd.  No  man  who  broke  his  civil  oath  to 
eno-aire  in  rebellion  shall  hold  office,  or  vote  for  presi- 
dent  till  permitted  by  special  act  of  Congress.  4th. 
The  national  debt,  including  bounties  and  pensions  to 
soldiers,  shall  be  held  inviolable.  5th.  The  rebel 
debt  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void.  6th.  No  compen- 
sation shall  be  allowed  for  emancipated  slaves. 


ANS^^^:RS  to  questions  on  u.  s.  history.      233 

224.  By  general  amnesty  and  pardon. 

225.  By  military  governors  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent, because,  according  to  the  plan  of  reconstruction, 
their  own  State  governments  were  declared  merely 
provisional. 

226.  Troubles  growing  out  of  the  difference  of 
opinion  between  President  Johnson  and  Congress  re- 
specting the  "  readmission  of  the  seceded  States," 
occasioned  much  bitterness  of  feeling  between  Johnson 
and  that  body.  No  less  than  seventeen  bills  submitted 
for  the  President's  signature,  were  returned  with  his 
veto  —  most  of  which  were  afterwards  passed  by  the 
requisite  two-thirds  majority  of  both  houses.  Finally, 
upon  the  President's  removing  Mr.  Stanton,  Secre- 
tary of  War,  without  concurrence  of  the  Senate,  the 
House  of  Representatives  by  a  vote  of  126  to  47  im- 
peached Andrew  Johnson,  President  of  the  United 
States,  of  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors  in  office. 
The  President  was  acquitted,  but  only  by  one  vote. 

227.  The  American  government  claimed  reparation 
from  the  English  government  for  depredations  com- 
mitted by  the  Alabama  and  other  English-built-and- 
manned  privateers  during  the  Civil  War.  The  refusal 
of  the  English  government  to  pay  the  damages  caused 
by  these  vessels,  produced  much  bitter  feeling,  and 
even  threatened  war.  A  tribunal  consisting  of  five 
arbitrators  from  different  nations,  acting  under  the 
provisions  of  the  treaty  of  Washington,  met  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  and  on  Sept.  14,  1872,  awarded  the  sum 
of  15V2  million  dollars   in  gold  to  be  paid  by  Great 


234       ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY. 

Britain  to  the  United  States,  for  the  satisfaction  of  all 
the  claims  "  known  as  the  Alabama  claims." 

228.  Both  parties  claiming  the  victory,  Congress 
agreed  to  refer  the  contest  to  a  joint  electoral  commis- 
sion, composed  of  five  senators,  five  representatives, 
and  five  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  This  commis- 
sion decided  that  185  electoral  votes  had  been  cast  for 
Hayes  and  Wheeler,  and  184forTilden  and  Hendricks. 

229.  John  Adams,  Thomas  Jefferson  and  Martin 
Van  Buren. 

230.  Harrison,  Taylor,  Lincoln,  and  Garfield. 
231. 

Presidents.  Parly. 

George  Washington Federal, 

John  Adams " 

Thomas  Jefferson Republican 

James  Madison " 

James  Monroe " 

John  Quinc}'  Adams Whig, 

Andrew  Jackson Democrat, 

Martin  Van  Buren " 

William  H.  Harrison Whig, 

John  Tyler « 

James  K.  Polk Democrat, 

Zo  chary  Taylor Whig 

Millard  Fillmore " 

Franklin  Pierce Democrat, 

James  Buchanan " 

Abraham  Lincoln Republican, 

Andrew  Johnson " 

U.S.Grant '« 

R.B.Hayes «< 

James  A  Garfleld " 

Chester  A  Arthur " 

Grover  Cleveland Democrat, 


Inaugurated. 

1789 

Tears 

in  office. 

8 

1797 

4 

1801 

8 

1809 

8 

1817 

8 

1825 

4 

1829 

8 

1837 

4 

1841 
1841 
1845 

Vl2 

4 

1849 

I'/s 

1850 
1853 

273 

4 

1857 

4 

1861 

4^8 

18G5 
1869 

3V8 

8 

1877 

4 

1881 
1881 
1884 

6V2  nios. 

3V2  y- 

ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS   ON  U.  S.  HISTORY.        235 

232.  (a)  In  1792,  by  Eli  Whitney.  (5)  By  its  in- 
vention, the  annual  production  of  cotton  in  the  Southern 
States  was  increased  from  five  thousand  to  over  five 
million  bales,  a  quantity  equal  in  value  to  seven-eighths 
of  all  the  cotton  produced  on  the  globe.  By  this  won- 
derful increase  in  the  civilized  world's  commodity, 
"  Cotton  became  king,"  and  slavery,  his  scepter,  with 
which  he  sought  to  rule  the  world.  Without  this  in- 
vention the  South  would  never  have  attained  its  present 
agricultural  importance,  and  slavery,  for  the  want  of 
profitable  continuance,  would  not  have  lingered  on  our 
continent  till  its  baleful  influence  drenched  the  country 
with  the  people's  blood. 

233.  Washington,  Jackson,  Harrison,  Taylor  and 
Grant. 

234.  For  the  first  blood  shed  in  the  Revolution  and 
in  the  Great  Civil  War. 

235.  The  Commissioner  of  Agriculture. 

236.  In  1(500,  at  Vinccnnes,  as  a  trading  post  by  the 
French. 

237.  General  Lyon,  August  10, 1861  ;  Generals  Stev- 
ens and  Kearney,  September  1,  18G2  ;  Colonel  Dahl- 
gren,  February,  1864  ;  General  Sedgwick,  May  9,  1864, 

238.  (rt)  A  protective  tariff  is  a  duty  imposed  on 
imported  goods  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  their 
manufacture  at  home.  Free  trade  means  no  duty  what- 
ever, or  a  light  duty  for  revenue  only,  (h)  Tlie  North 
has  generally  favored  a  protective  tariff,  the  South  free 
trade,  (c)  Clay,  Webster  and  Calhoun  (during  his 
earlier  career),     (d)  Calhoun,  Benton,  and  Hayne. 


236       ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON   U.  S.  HISTORY.    ^ 

239.  Abraham  Lincoln,  Republican  party;  Stephen 
A.  Douglas,  the  northern  wing  of  the  Democratic  par- 
ty; John  C.  Breckenriclge,  the  pro-slavery  Demo- 
cratic party ;  John  Bell,  the  Constitutional  Union 
party. 

240.  (a)  In  1755,  at  St.  Genevieve,  by  the  French. 
(b)  April  8,  1812.     (c)  August  10,  1821. 

241.  In  1769  at  San  Diego. 

242.  Revolutionary  war;  war  with  Indians  in  north- 
west Territory,  1793—4;  war  with  Tripoli,  1801— 5  ; 
second  war  with  Great  Britain  1812 — 14  ;  war  with  the 
Creeks,  1811—14 ;  war  with  Algiers,  1815 ;  Black  Hawk 
War,  1832;  Seminole  ^Yar,  1835—37  :  war  with  Mexi- 
co, 1846—8;  the  Civil  War,  1861—5;  the  war  with  the 
Sioux,  1862,  and  again  in  1877. 

243.  (a)  By  conquest,  purchase,  annexation,  ex- 
ploration, and  occupancy.  (6)  By  conquest:  the  orig- 
inal territory  from  England  ;  partly  by  conquest  and 
partly  by  purchase:  California,  Nevada,  etc.,  from 
Mexico  ;  by  annexation  :  Texas  from  Texas ;  by  ex- 
ploration and  occupancy  :  Oregon ;  by  purchase :  Louis- 
iana, from  France,  Florida  from  Spain;  Gadsen  tract, 
from  Mexico,  Alaska  from  Russia. 

244.  Bancroft's  History,  Webster's  and  Worcester's 
Dictionaries. 

245  They  were  required  to  rescind  their  ordinances 
of  secession,  declare  void  all  debts  contracted  in  sup- 
port of  the  Rebellion,  and  vote  to  adopt  an  amendment 
to  the  Constitution  abolishing  slavery. 


.  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   U.  S.  HISTORY.        237 

246.  In  Massachusetts,  Bunker  Hill;  in  New  York, 
Saratoga;  in  Pennsylvania,  Gettysburg;  in  Maryland, 
Antietam;  in  Virginia,  Yorktown;  in  Tennessee, 
Nashville,  and  Murf reesboro ;  in  Georgia,  battles 
before  Atlanta  ;  in  Mississippi,  battles  in  vicinity  of 
Vicksburg ;  in  Arkansas,  Pea  Ridge;  in  Kentucky, 
Perry  ville. 

247.  General  George  H.  Thomas. 

248.  (a)  Four;  viz.,  1857,  1858,  1865,  and  accom- 
plished in  1866.     (6)  Cyrus  W.  Field. 

249.  1st.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  constituted 
a  mere  bond  of  union  between  independent  States;  — 
the  Constitution  is  the  expression  of  a  people  constitut- 
ing and  establishing  themselves  an  independent  and 
indivisible  nation.  2nd.  The  power  of  Congress, 
under  the  articles  of  Confederation  was  only  delegated 
power,  the  States  reserving  the  sovereignty  to  them- 
selves; —  the  power  of  Congress,  under  the  Constitu- 
tion comes  direct  from  the  people.  3rd.  Under  the 
Articles  of  Confederation,  Congress  could  merely 
I'econwiend,  leaving  the  sovereign  States  to  act  as  their 
^ocaHnterests  might  dictate;  — under  the  Constitution, 
Congress,  representing  the  will  of  the  people,  author- 
izes, and  the  executive  enforces.  4th.  Congress,  under 
the  Articles  of  Confederation,  could  apportion  the 
general  debt  among  the  States,  and  reco^nmend  that 
each  pay  its  just  share;  —  under  the  Constitution, 
the  national  debt  is  paid  by  appropriations  from  the 
national  treasury. 


238     ans^\t:rs  to  questions  on  u.  s.  history. 

250.  During  King  William's  War  Massachusetts 
issued  bills  of  credit  to  pay  the  expense  of  Governor 
Phipp's  expedition  against  Canada. 

251.  Three  orators:  Patrick  Henry,  Clay  and  Web- 
ster; statesmen:  Hamilton,  Madison  and  W.  H. 
Seward;  poets:  Longfellow,  Bryant,  and  Whittier ; 
historians  :  Bancroft,  Prescott,  and  Motley;  novelists: 
Cooper,  Irving,  and  Hawthorne ;  inventors :  Ell 
Whitnej'-,  Morse,  and  Edison. 

252.  John  Hancock,  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin, Kobert  Morris,  Eoger  Sherman,  Thomas  Jefferson, 
Eldridge  Gerry,  Richard  Henry  Lee,  Charles  Carroll, 
Samuel  Adams. 

253.  The  rank  of  General  has  been  held  by  U. 
S.  Grant  and  W.  T.  Sherman;  Lt.  General  by 
Washington,  Grant,  Sherman,  and  Sheridan,  —  Scott, 
by  brevet. 

254.  Under  the  Articles  of  Confederation  no  such 
officer  was  provided  as  President.  The  Constitution, 
which  succeeded  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  was 
completed  by  the  convention,  September  17,  1787,  but 
owing  to  the  delay  in  its  ratification  by  the  requisite 
number  [9]  of  States,  it  did  not  go  into  effect  until 
March  4,  1789  ;  during  the  interim  both  executive  and 
legislative  powers  were  exercised  by  Congress. 

255.  The  purchase  of  Alaska,  the  Centennial  Cele- 
bration, settlement  of  the  fishery  dispute,  the  rail- 
road riots,  and  the  assassination  of  President  Gar- 
field. 


ANS^VERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON   U.  S.  HISTORY.        239 

25G.  November  15, 1883,  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  decided  that  the  first  and  second  sections  of  the 
Act  of  Congress  of  March  1,  1877,  entitled  "An  act 
to  protect  all  citizens  in  their  civil  and  legal  rights  " 
were  unconstitutional.  These  acts  refer  to  granting 
colored  persons  equal  accommodations  in  hotels,  rail- 
road cars,  and  theatres. 


QUESTIONS  ON  CIVrL  GOVERNMENT. 

1.  Define  government  as  applied  to  communities. 

2.  What  does  tlie  term  nation  in  a  political  sense 
mean? 

3.  What  should  be  the  chief  object  of  every  govern- 
ment? 

4.  (a)  Name  the  various  forms  of  government 
known  to  history,  (b)  State  which  of  these  are  now 
in  existence. 

5.  (a)  Explain  what  is  meant  by  a  republican  form 
of  government,     (b)  Give  five  examples. 

6.  What  term  defines  the  government  of  the  U.  S.  ? 

7.  What  analogy  exists  between  the  government  of 
the  U.  S.  and  the  several  States? 

8.  Show  whether  the  form  of  government  under 
which  we  live  is  "  the  best"  for  all  classes. 

9.  What  do  you  mean  by  a  written  constitution? 
and  how  does  it  differ  from  an  unwritten  constitution? 

10.  Whence  are  the  laws  of  this  country  mainly  de- 
rived ? 

11.  By  what  bonds  were  the  States  united  from  1775 
to  1789? 

240 


QUESTIONS   ON   CIVIL   GOVERNMENT.  241 

12.  State  in  the  fewest  words  possible  the  objec- 
tions to  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

13.  Write  correctly  the  Preamble  to  the  Constitu- 
tion . 

14.  Which  of  the  several  objects  set  forth  in  the 
Preamble  do  you  regard  the  most  important?  Give 
your  reason. 

15.  What  is  the  Congress  of  the  U.  S.  ?  and  of  what 
does  it  consist? 

16.  (a)  How  often,  and  when,  does  Congress  as- 
semble? (6)  What  is  the  constitutional  term  of  its 
existence  ?  (c)  What  do  you  mean  by  the  forty-fourth 
Congress  ? 

17.  («)  What  is  the  House  of  Representatives? 
(h)  Of  how  many  composed  (1884)?  (c)  Why  are 
the  members  called  Representatives  ?  (cZ)  Eligibility  ? 
(e)  What  is  the  basis  of  representation  (1884)? 

18.  What  is  the  constitutional  definition  of  a  citizen? 

19.  Where  and  for  what  purpose  does  the  word 
slavery  occur  in  the  Constitution  ? 

20.  («)  What  is  the  principal  object  in  taking  the 
census?  (b)  How  often  taken?  (c)  Name  some 
other  facts  obtained  by  the  census  than  population. 

21.  Define  the  following  terms  used  in  the  Constitu- 
tion: electors;  oath  ; affirmation  ;  judgment. 

22.  State  what  bills  must  originate  in  the  House  of 
Representatives,  and  why. 

23.  Under  what  circumstances  does  the  House  of 
Representatives  elect  the  President?  How  many  times, 
and  when  did  this  occur? 

16 


242  QUESTIONS    ox    CIVIL    GOVERNMENT. 

24.  How  is  the  U.  S.  Senate  composed? 

25.  What  are  the  conditions  of  eligibility  to  the  U. 
S.  Senate? 

26.  By  whom  and  for  what  term  are  Senators  chosen  ? 

27.  Is  the  President  of  the  Senate  pro  tempore,  when 
the  Vice-President  has  succeeded  to  the  presidency, 
Vice-President  of  the  U.  S,  ?     Give  your  reason. 

28.  When  does  the  Chief  Justice  preside  over  the 
Senate  ? 

29.  AVhat  is  impeachment?  By  whom  made?  By 
whom  tried? 

30.  What  is  an  executive  session  of  the  Senate? 
Why  so  called,  and  what  business  is  transacted  at  such 
session,  and  in  what  manner? 

31.  (ff)When  is  the  Vice-President  of  the  U.  S. 
elected  by  the  Senate?  (h)  When  has  such  an  elec- 
tion occurred? 

32.  What  punishment  under  the  Constitution  may 
follow  conviction,  on  impeachment,  by  the  Senate? 

33.  What  constitutes  a  quorum  in  Congress? 

34.  Name  the  objects  in  taking  the  vote  by  yeas  and 
nays  in  the  U.  S.  Congress. 

35.  On  what  does  the  duration  of  Congress  depend? 

36.  What  is  a  bill  as  used  in  the  Constitution? 

37.  (a)  By  how  many  processes  may  a  bill  become 
a  law?    (J))  Give  the  several  steps  of  each  process. 

38.  (a)  Is  the  veto  power  of  the  President  quali- 
fied or  absolute?  (6)  State  what  you  can  respecting 
the  exercise  of  this  power  by  the  different  Presidents. 

39.  Give  an  explanation  of  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus. 


QUESTIONS   ON    CIVIL   GOVERNMENT.  243 

40.  When,  why,  and  by  whom  may  the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus  be  suspended  ? 

41.  Why  are  export  duties  from  States  prohibited? 

42.  What  is  the  object  of  the  provision  restricting 
the  disbursement  of  public  money  ? 

43.  State  why  army  appropriations  cannot  extend 
beyond  two  years. 

44.  State  clearly  what  is  meant  by  a  bill  of  attainder. 

45.  What  is  an  cx-^9os^-/rtc^o  law? 

46.  Who  declares  the  punishment  of  treason?  To 
whom  is  the  punishment  limited  ? 

47.  Why  does  the  Constitution  in  the  14th  Amend- 
ment prohibit  the  payment  of  certain  debts  ? 

48.  Give  a  comprehensive  definition  of  civil  liberty. 

49.  What  Constitutional  provisions  are  made  for 
the  exercise  of  religious  freedom? 

50.  What  personal  rights  of  speech,  freedom  of  the 
press  and  right  of  petition  are  guaranteed  by  the  Con- 
stitution ? 

51.  State  a  reason  why  the  Senate  suffrage  can 
never  by  changed  by  Constitutional  amendment. 

52.  Why  are  insurrections  more  liable  to  occur 
under  our  government  than  under  a  monarchy? 

53.  What  rights  and  powers  are  reserved  to  the 
respective  States? 

54.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  State  obligation  to  the 
Federal  Union  ? 

55.  Why  are  amendments  equally  binding  on  such 
States  as  do  not  ratify  them  as  upon  others? 


244  QUESTIONS    ON    CIVIL    GOVERNIMENT. 

56.  What  terms  of  the  Constitution  particularly  es- 
tablish the  supremacy  of  the  U.  S.  authority? 

57.  Name  the  commercial  powers  which  the  States 
are  forbidden  to  exercise. 

58.  Under  what  circumstances  would  a  State  be  jus- 
tified in  raising  troops  without  the  consent  of 
Congress? 

59.  For  what  purpose  are  inspection  laws  enacted? 

60.  What  is  the  term  of  office  of  Supreme  Court 


jud 


"•es 


61.  What  was  the  origin  of  trial  by  jury? 

62.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  grand  and 
petit  jury? 

63.  Under  what  conditions  may  a  person  be  de- 
prived of  his  property  ? 

6-4.  How  is  treason  against  the  U.  S.  defined? 

65.  In  whom  is  the  executive  power  of  the  U.  S. 
vested? 

66.  What  conditions  of  eligibility  are  required  in 
the  President? 

67.  How  many  and  what  methods  are  provided  for 
the  election  of  President  of  the  U.S.? 

68.  Give  a  brief  outline  of  the  method  of  electing 
the  President  of  the  United  States. 

69.  Who  would  become  President  if  the  Constitu- 
tional methods  prescribed  failed  in  the  election  of  that 
officer? 

70.  State  the  extent  of  power  given  the  President 
over  pardons  and  reprieves. 


ANSWEE8  TO   QUESTIONS   ON   CIVIL   GOVEKNMENT.       245 

71.  Define  the  following  terms :  Ambassador, 
Minister,  Consul. 

72.  What  officers  constitute  the  President's  cabinet? 

73.  Name  the  instances  in  our  history  in  which  the 
Vice-President  has  been  called  to  fill  the  unexpired 
term  of  the  President. 

74.  What  special  propriety  is  there  in  prescribing 
the  election  of  Vice-President  by  the  Senate,  in  case 
the  electors  fail  in  electing  that  officer? 

75.  In  what  respect  do  the  duties  of  the  President 
of  the  Senate  differ  from  those  of  the  Speaker  of  the 
House? 

76.  How  is  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
established,  and  how  organized  ?  Of  how  many  judges 
does  it  consist? 

77.  How  is  a  person  having  a  claim  against  a  State 
to  obtain  relief? 

78.  Name  the  various  offices  and  bureaus  in  charge 
of  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 

79.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  "  minority  represen- 
tation . ' ' 

80.  Name  some  exceptions  to  universal  suffrage  in 
the  several  States. 


AJJ^SWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  dVTL  GOVERN- 
MENT. 

1.  The  term  government  signifies  the  organized 
means  a  nation  cni[)lo3S  for  securing  the  rights  of  the 
people  and  for  perpetuating  its  own  existence. 


246      ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 

2.  A  nation  is  a  political  community,  independent 
of  all  others,  creating  and  changing  its  own  constitu- 
tion and  enacting  its  own  laws  without  hindrance  from 
any  other  community. 

3.  The  good  of  the  governed. 

4.  (a)  Patriarchal,  Theocratic,  Monarchial,  Aristo- 
cratic, Democratic,  Republican,  (b)  Monarchial  and 
Republican. 

5.  (a)  A  Republican  government  is  one  whose  laws 
are  made  and  executed  oy  representatives  chosen  by 
voters  at  stated  times,  (b)  The  United  States,  France, 
Switzerland,  Mexico,  Chili. 

6.  A  Federal-Republican  government. 

7.  The  National  government  and  State  governments 
have  each  three  distinct  branches  or  departments  :  the 
legislative,  executive,  and  judicial.  The  President  of 
the  nation  corresponds  to  the  Governor  of  the  State ; 
the  vice-president  of  the  former,  to  the  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor of  the  latter.  The  nation  has  its  congress,  and 
the  State  has  its  legislature.  The  nation  has  its  federal 
judiciary,  and  the  States  have  their  system  of  courts. 

8.  It  is  the  best  for  an  intelligent  and  virtuous  peo- 
ple ;  but  for  the  ignorant  and  depraved  it  is  the  worst 
form  which  could  be  devised,  since  the  power  is  likely 
to  fall  into  the  hands  of  corrupt  intriguers  and  mer- 
cenary demagogues  influenced  by  no  motive  but  self- 
interest,  and  amenable  to  no  power  save  that  of  might. 

9.  A  written  constitution  is  a  written  instrument 
embodying  the  principh^s  or  fundamental  laws  which 
govern  the  nation.     An  unwritten  constitution  is  the 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON   CIVIL    GOVERNMENT.       247 

character  of  a  nation  as  implied  in  the  institutions  and 
usages  of  its  society. 

10.  From  England. 

11.  For  the  first  six  years,  by  the  ties  of  common 
interest,  without  any  written  bond  of  union;  after  that, 
by  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

12.  They  were  antagonistic  to  the  spirit,  genius, 
and  constitution  of  the  people  whom  they  were  designed 
to  mould  into  one  nation. 

13.  We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order 
to  form  a  more  perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure 
domestic  tranquilhty,  provide  for  the  common  defence, 
promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings 
of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain 
and  establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of 
America. 

14.  The  5th,  to  "-^ promote  the  general  welfare,''  be- 
cause it  implies,  in  a  general  way,  all  the  others. 

15.  The  law-making  power  of  the  United  States. 
It  consists  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Eepresentatives. 

16.  (a)  Congress  must  assemble  at  least  once  every 
year,  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  {h)  It  can 
never  extend  beyond  two  years.  (c)  The  forty- 
fourth  Congress  means  the  forty-fourth  time  a  new 
Congress,  i.e,  the  House  of  Eepresentatives  has  been 
organized,  which  must  occur  every  alternate  year. 

17.  (ff)  The  House  of  Eepresentatives  is  the  most 
numerous  branch  of  Congress.  Its  members  are 
elected  by  the  people,  {h)  It  is  composed  of  325 
members,  which  number  will  not  be  changed  before 


248     ANS^\'ERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 

March,  1893.  (c)  Because  they  act,  and  speak,  and 
vote  as  the  agent  of  the  people  who  elect  them,  {d) 
A  Representative  must  have  attained  the  age  of  25 
years,  must  have  been  a  citizen  of  the  U.  S.  seven 
years,  and  must  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  from 
which  he  is  chosen,  (e)  From  March,  1883,  to  March, 
1893,  each  State  is  entitled  to  one  representative  for 
every  151,912  of  its  inhabitants. 

18.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United 
States  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State  wherein 
they  reside. 

19.  Only  in  the  13th  Amendment  for  the  purpose 
of  its  abolition. 

20.  Theapportionment  of  representatives.  (6)  Every 
ten  years.  The  first  was  taken  in  1790.  (c)  Besides 
the  number  of  inhabitants,  their  ages,  sex,  color,  and 
ability  to  read  and  write,  we  obtain  statistics  of  facts 
relating  to  agriculture,  commerce,  manufacture,  etc. 

21.  Electors  in  the  Constitution  means  voters.  An 
oath  is  a  solemn  declaration  made  with  an  appeal  to 
God  for  the  truth  of  what  is  said.  An  affirmation  is  a 
solemn  declaration  made  by  one  who  is  unwilling  to 
take  an  oath  from  conscientious  scruples.  A  judg- 
ment is  a  solemn  determination  of  a  fact  by  compe- 
tent judicial  authority. 

22.  "All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in 
the  House  of  Representatives,"  because  since  the  peo- 
ple are  to  pay  the  taxes,  if  any  are  imposed,  it  is 
proper  that  their  representatives  should  be  the  prime 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  CIVIL  G0\T:RNMENT.      249 

movers  in  any  measures  that  require  money  to  prose- 
cute them. 

23.  When  the  electors  shall  fail  to  elect  a  President, 
in  the  manner  prescribed,  the  election  devolves  on  the 
House.  This  has  occurred  twice:  the  first  time  in 
1801,  when  Thomas  Jefferson  was  elected  on  the  thirty- 
sixth  ballot;  the  second  instance  was  in  1825,  when 
John  Quincy  Adams  was  elected  on  the  first  ballot. 

24.  The  Senate  is  composed  of  two  members  from 
each  State. 

25.  A  Senator  must  be  thirty  years  of  age,  have 
been  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  nine  years,  and  must 
be  an  inhabitant  of  the  State  from  which  he  is  chosen. 

26.  Senators  are  chosen  by  the  Legislatures  of  their 
respective  States  for  a  term  of  six  years. 

27.  The  President  of  the  Senate ^ro  tempore  is  not 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States.  The  Vice-Presi- 
dent is  an  ofiicer  of  the  United  States,  and  cannot  be 
a  member  of  Congress.  A  person  may  be  eligible  to 
the  ofiice  of  Senator,  and  consequently  to  the  position 
of  President  ^jro  tern.,  though  ineligible  to  the  Vice- 
Presidency.  Example  :  the  President  pro  tern,  might 
not  be  a  native-born  citizen. 

28.  When  the  President  is  tried  the  Chief  Justice 
presides. 

29.  An  impeachment  is  a  solemn  and  specific  accusa- 
tion brought  against  a  public  ofiicer  for  misconduct  in 
office.  The  House  has  the  sole  power  of  preferring 
articles  of  impeachment.  The  Senate  has  the  sole 
power  to  try  all  impeachments. 


250      ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON    CIVIL    GOVERNMENT. 

30.  An  Executive  Session  is  a  special  meeting  of 
Senators  called  for  the  purpose  of  confirming  Presi- 
dential appointments  or  ratifying  treaties.  It  is  so 
called  because  in  such  cases  tlie  Senate  acts  on  the 
recommendations  of  the  President.  The  meeting  is 
held  with  closed  doors,  the  members  being,  gener- 
ally, under  an  injunction  of  secresy. 

31.  (a)  When  the  electors  shall  fail  to  elect  a  Vice- 
President,  {b)  Richard  M.  Johnson  in  1837  was 
elected  Vice-President  by  the  Senate. 

32.  1st,  Removal  from  office ;  and,  2nd,  Disqualifi- 
cation to  hold  and  enjoy  any  oflace  of  honor,  trust,  or 
profit  under  the  United  States. 

33.  A  majority  of  each  House. 

34.  To  preserve  a  record  of  the  vote  of  each  mem- 
ber on  any  matter  voted  upon. 

35.  1st.  On  the  Constitutional  limitation  which  can 
not  extend  beyond  two  years.  2nd.  On  the  pleasure 
of  the  two  Houses,  subject  to  the  foregoing  restric- 
tions. 3rd.  On  the  pleasure  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  when  the  two  Houses  cannot  agree  on 
the  time  of  adjournment. 

36.  A  bill  is  the  draft  of  a  proposed  law. 

37.  (a)  Three  processes.  (6)  First  process:  1st. 
the  bill  shall  pass  both  Houses  of  Congress.  2nd.  It 
shall  be  presented  to  the  President.  3rd.  If  he  ap- 
prove it  he  shall  sign  it. 

Second  Process:  1st.  The  bill  shall  pass  both 
Houses.  2nd.  It  shall  be  presented  to  the  President. 
3rd.  If  he  disapprove  it,  he  shall  return  it   to  that 


ANSAVERS    TO    QUESTIOXS    ON    CIVIL    GOVERNIMENT.       251 

House  in  Avliich  it  originated.  4tb.  That  House  shall 
enter  his  objections  at  large  on  their  journal.  5th. 
They  shall  proceed  to  reconsider  it;  and  if,  after  such 
reconsideration,  two-thirds  of  the  House  shall  agree  to 
pass  it,  it  shall  be  sent,  with  the  objections,  to  the 
other  House.  6th.  The  other  House  shall  reconsider 
the  bill ;  and  if  approved  by  two-thirds  of  that  House, 
it  shall  become  a  law. 

Third  Process  :  1st.  The  bill  shall  pass  both  Houses. 
2nd.  It  shall  be  sent  to  the  President.  3rd.  He  neg- 
lects to  approve  or  return  it.  4th.  It  becomes  a  law 
at  the  end  of  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted),  unless 
Congress  by  adjournment  within  that  time  prevent  its 
return. 

38.  (a)  The  veto  power  of  the  President  is  only 
qualified,  not  absolute.  In  this  respect  it  differs  from 
the  veto  power  of  the  British  Sovereign,  in  whom  it  is 
absolute,  (b)  Nearly  all  the  Presidents  have  exercised 
the  prerogative.  Tyler  vetoed  five  bills,  and  John- 
son, tiventt/-one.  Bills  have  been  passed  over  the  veto 
of  but  three  Presidents — viz.,  one  in  the  administra- 
tion of  Mr.  Tyler,  four  in  that  of  Mr.  Pierce,  and 
seventeen  in  that  of  Mr.  Johnson. 

39.  It  is  a  writ  of  relief  ordering  the  release  of  any 
one  imprisoned  or  wrongfully  restrained  of  his  lib- 
erty. If  the  court  on  inquiry  decide  that  the  person 
is  justly  restrained  he  is  remanded  to  custody,  other- 
wise he  is  set  at  liberty. 

40.  The  writ  of  habeas  corpus  may  be  suspended 
during  a  rebellion,  when  the  public  safety  may  require 


252      ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   CIVIL   GO^^RNMENT. 

it.  The  power  of  suspension  belongs  to  Congress. 
From  1861  to  1865,  Congress  vested  the  power  in  the 
President. 

41.  The  Prohibition  is  to  prevent  taxing  the  inter- 
ests of  any  State  to  its  detriment,  and  giving  undue 
advantages  to  others.  The  production  of  the  several 
States  being  different,  the  burden  of  taxation  would 
be  as  unequal  as  the  exports. 

42.  To  secure  strict  faithfulness  in  the  public  ex- 
penditures. No  officer  of  the  U.  S.  or  of  Congress 
can  draw  a  dollar  of  public  money  except  by  appro- 
priations made  by  law. 

43.  This  constitutional  provision  was  due  to  the 
fear  that  the  army  might  become  a  power  too  formid- 
able to  be  consistent  with  the  rights  and  liberties 
of  the  people. 

44.  It  is  a  special  act  of  the  legislative  body, 
inflicting  capital  punishment  on  a  person  for  high 
crimes,  without  having  convicted  him  before  a  court 
of  law.  A  person  against  whom  such  an  act  was 
passed  was  said  to  be  attainted  and  outlawed.  His 
blood  became  so  corrupted  that  he  could  neither 
inherit  from  his  ancestry,  nor  transmit  by  hereditary 
descent  to  his  heirs. 

45.  An  ex-post-facto  law  is  one  which  makes  an  act 
criminal  which  was  not  so  when  committed. 

46.  Congress.  The  punishment  is  limited  to  the 
person  convicted ;  in  no  legal  sense  does  it  reach  his 
posterity. 


ANS'VVEKS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON    CIVIL   GOVERNMENT.       253 

47.  These  debts  were  incuiTed  in  aid  of  tlie  rebel- 
lion against  the  U.  S.  Their  repudiation  is  designed 
as  a  penalty  on  those  who  aided  the  rebellion  by 
investing  in  Confederate  bonds. 

48.  "  Civil  liberty  is  the  natural  liberty  of  man- 
kind so  far,  and  only  so  far  restrained  as  is  consistent 
with  the  public  good."  — Pliny. 

49.  "  No  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a 
qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the 
United  States." 

*'  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  estab- 
lishment of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise 
thereof." 

60.  No  law  shall  be  made  "  abridging  the  freedom 
of  speech  or  of  the  press ;  or  the  right  of  the  people 
peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the  government 
for  a  redress  of  grievances." 

51.  Art.  V.  of  the  Constitution  provides  that  "  No 
State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its 
equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate." 

52.  On  account  of  the  greater  freedom  our  people 
enjoy  than  those  under  other  forms  of  government, 
that  freedom  is,  correspondingly,  more  liable  to  be 
abused. 

53.  All  such  rights  and  powers  are  reserved  to  the 
States  as  are  not  expressly,  or  by  necessary  implica- 
tion, delegated  to  the  general  government. 

54.  It  is  based  on  their  assent  to  the  Constitution 
of  the  U.  S.  Having  accepted  the  terms  of  the  union, 
they  became  subordinate  to  the  national  authority. 


254      ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   CIVIL   GOVERNIMENT. 

55.  Because,  having  entered  the  Union,  they  agreed 
to  the  terms  upon  which  its  Constitution  might  be 
amended. 

56.  Sect.  2,  Art.  VI. :  "This  Constitution,  and  the 
laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be  made  in  pur- 
suance thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall 
be  made  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States, 
shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land ;  and  the  judges 
in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the 
Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  not- 
withstanding." 

57.  1.  To  coin  money.  2.  To  issue  bills  of  credit. 
3.  To  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender 
in  payment  of  debts.  4.  To  pass  any  law  impairing 
the  obligation  of  contracts 

58.  Necessities  for  protection  against  invasion  or 
insurrection  might  be  so  great  as  to  render  a  delay 
dangerous ;  in  which  case  the  State  government  would 
be  justified  in  arming  and  equipping  its  own  troops 
for  the  emergency. 

59.  Inspection  laws  serve  to  maintain  the  standard 
and  purity  of  articles  designed  for  exportation  and 
domestic  use. 

60.  During  good  behavior,  or  life.  Any  judge  of 
the  U.  S.  Court  having  held  his  commission  ten  years, 
and  having  attained  the  age  of  seventy  years,  may 
resign  his  office  and  receive  the  same  salary  during 
life  which  was  payable  to  him  at  the  time  of  his  res- 
ignation. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON    CTATL    GOVERNMENT.       255 

61.  Trial  by  jury  originated  in  England  in  the  9th 
century  during  the  reign  of  Alfred  the  Great. 

62.  A  grand  jury  consists  of  from  12  to  23  men, 
whose  duty  is  to  make  careful  inquiry  of  offenses 
committed  within  the  district  for  which  they  are 
chosen,  and  to  make  presentment  of  the  same.  A 
majority  is  required  to  find  an  indictment.  A  petit 
jury  consists  of  12  "  good  and  lawful  men,"  selected 
to  try  the  offenses  against  which  indictments  are 
found,  or  for  the  trial  of  issues  of  fact.  A  unanimous 
vote  in  most  States  is  necessary  to  convict. 

63.  The  public  good  may  require  private  property 
for  public  roads,  railroads,  arsenals,  forts,  etc.  In 
these  cases  private  property  may  be  taken  by  authority 
of  law,  but  not  without  just  compensation  to  the  owner. 

64.  "  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  con- 
sist in  levying  war  against  them,  or  adhering  to  their 
enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort." 

65.  In  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

66.  He  must  be  a  natural  born  citizen  of  the  U.  S., 
must  have  attained  the  age  of  35  years,  and  have  been 
14  years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

67.  Two  methods  :  first,  by  electors  api)ointed  for 
that  purpose ;  if  this  method  fail  the  election  devolves 
on  the  House  of  Representatives. 

68.  The  following  are  the  steps  taken  in  the  election 
of  President: 

1st.  The  electors,  previously  appointed,  shall  meet 
in  their  respective  States  on  the  first  Wednesday  in 


256      ANSWERS    TO   QUESTIONS    ON   CIVIL   GOVERNlViENT. 

December,  and  vote  by  distinct  ballots  for  President 
and  Vice-President. 

2nd.  The  votes  are  signed,  certified,  sealed,  and 
addressed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate  at  the  seat  of 
government  of  the  United  States. 

3rd.  The  President  of  the  Senate,  at  a  joint  meet- 
ing of  the  two  Houses  of  Congress,  called  the  second 
Wednesday  of  February,  shall  open  the  certificates, 
and  the  votes  are  counted  by  tellers  appointed  by  the 
House  and  the  Senate. 

4th.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
for  President,  shall  be  President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  the  electors  appointed. 

5th.  If  no  person  have  a  majority  of  the  electors 
appointed,  the  election  of  President  devolves  on  the 
House  of  Representatives. 

69.  The  Vice-President. 

70.  "  He  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and 
pardons  for  offenses  against  the  United  States,  except 
in  the  cases  of  impeachment." 

71.  An  Ambassador  is  an  officer  employed  by  gov- 
ernment to  represent,  and  to  manage  its  interests,  at 
the  seat  of  government  of  some  other  government. 
A  Minister  has  the  same  duties  as  an  Ambassador,  but 
is  regarded  as  inferior  in  rank.  A  Consul  is  an  officer 
whose  duty  it  is  to  protect  the  rights,  commerce,  mer- 
chants and  seamen  of  his  government  in  the  country 
to  which  he  may  be  appointed,  and  to  aid  any  com- 
mercial transactions  between  his  own  and  such  foreign 
country. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   CIVIL   GOYEItN.^IENT.       257 

72.  Secretary  of  State,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
Secretary  of  War,  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Secretary 
of  the  Interior,  Postmaster-General,  and  Attorney- 
General. 

73.  1.  John  Tyler  succeeded  WiUiam  Henry  Harri- 
son, who  died  April  4,  1841.  2.  Millard  Fillmore 
succeeded  Zachary  Taylor,  who  died  July  9,  1850.  3. 
Andrew  Johnson  succeeded  Abraham  Lincoln,  who 
wasassassinated  April  14, 1865.  4.  Chester  A.  Arthur 
succeeded  James  A.  Garfield,  who  died  September  19, 
1881. 

74.  This  provision  seems  to  be  designed  as  a  com- 
pliment to  the  Senate  on  account  of  the  position  the 
Constitution  provides  for  the  Vice-President  in  the 
Senate. 

75.  The  Speaker  of  the  House  has  the  appointment 
of  standing  committees ;  but  since  the  President  of  the 
Senate  is  not  a  member  of  that  body,  he  has  no  such 
privilege  unless  granted  by  the  Senate. 

76.  The  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  is  es- 
tablished by  the  Constitution  and  organized  by  Con- 
gress. The  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  are  one  Chief 
Justice  and  eight  associate  justices. 

77.  He  may  petition  the  Legislature  for  redress,  un- 
less courts  of  claims  are  established  for  such  purposes, 
in  which  case  he  may  present  his  claim  by  petition  or 
otherwise. 

78.  The  Patent  Office,  Census  Office,  Land  Office, 
Bureaus  of  Mines,  Lidian  Affairs,  Pensions,  Educa- 
tion. 


258      ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON    CIVIL    GOVERNMENT. 

79.  In  the  case  of  election  of  representatives  in 
some  States,  each  qualified  voter  may  cast  as  many 
votes  for  one  candidate  as  there  are  representatives  to 
be  elected,  or  may  distribute  the  same,  or  equal  parts 
thereof,  among  the  candidates,  as  he  shall  see  fit. 

80.  In  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  those  who  are 
unable  to  read  an  article  in  the  Constitution  are  ex- 
cluded from  voting.  Seven  States  exclude  paupers 
from  suffrage.  Georgia,  Nevada,  Massachusetts  and 
New  Hampshire  make  the  payment  of  taxes  a  requisite 
for  voting,  except  in  certain  cases. 


QUESTIONS  OX  BOTANY. 

1.  State  resemblances  and  differences  between 
plants  and  animals. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  flora  of  a  country? 

3.  Explain  the  application  of  the  terms  species  and 
genus. 

4.  (^a)  How  are  plants  designated  as  to  their  term 
of  life?  (6)  Define  and  give  examples  of  the  terms 
you  employ. 

6.  Distinguish  between  deciduous  and  evergreen 
trees,  and  give  two  illustrations  of  each. 

G.  (a)  Define  germination.  (6)  What  does  it  re- 
quire? 

7.  Name  and  define  the  parts  of  the  embryo. 

8.  Upon  what  characteristic  of  the  early  growing 
plant  is  founded  the  most  important  subdivision  of 
dowering  plants? 

9.  Define  and  apply  correctly  the  terms  endogens 
and  exogens. 

10.  What  distinction  is  observed  between  the  leaves 
of  endogenous  and  exogenous  plants? 

259 


260  QUESTIONS    ON    BOTANY. 

11.  Give  a  diagram-outline  of  the  vegetable  sub- 
kingdoms  known  as  Phaenogamia  and  Oryplogamia. 

12.  Name  and  locate  the  parts  of  a  flower. 

13.  Define  the  terms,  2)eria nth,  androecium,  gynoe- 
cium. 

14.  Enumerate  the  attributes  possessed  by  a  typical 
flower. 

15.  Explain  the  terms  used  in  distinguishing  the 
typical  flower. 

16.  How  are  leaves  of  the  cahjx  and  corolla  desig- 
nated ? 

17.  AYhen  is  a  flower  said  to  be  {a)  perfect?  (b) 
complete.^  (c)  apelalous?  (d)  staminate?  (e)  pistil- 
late? 

18.  What  are  glumes  and  pales? 

19.  What  is  pollen  ?     Where  found  ? 

20.  Define  the  term  pericarp,  and  state  which  form 
is  dehiscent  and  which  indeliiscent. 

21.  Give  examples  of  the  following:  Drupe,  Tryma^ 
Pome,  Hef<peridium,  Samara. 

22.  What  are  the  ofiices  of  the  root? 

23.  Name  some  of  the  principal  forms  of  roots. 

24.  State  the  difference  between  epiphytes  and^ara- 
sites. 

25.  What  terms  are  applied  to  those  branches  tend- 
ing to  produce  adventitious  roots? 

26.  Define  the  terms  caulis,  culm,  trunk. 

2.1.  What  peculiarity  is  observed  with  respect  to  the 
twinins:  of  different  vines  ? 


QUESTIONS    ON   BOTANY.  261 

28.  What  distinction  can   you   name   between  the 
rhizome  and  the  creeper'^ 

29.  Is  the  tuber  a  root?     State  your  reason. 

30.  What  is  a  bulb  ?     Name  its  most  common  forms. 

31.  How    does    a   flower-bud   differ   from    a    leaf- 
bud? 

32.  What  various  positions  upon  the  plant  may  the 
leaf-bud  occupy? 

33.  Define  vernation,  and   enumerate   the   various 
forms  of  bud  folding. 

34.  What  are  the  common  forms  of  leaf  arrangement 
on  the  axis  ? 

35.  Name  the  parts  of  a  complete  net-veined  leaf. 

36.  How  do  leaves  contribute  to  the  nourishment  of 
plants  ? 

37.  What  is  the  characteristic  venation  of  the  three 
grand  divisions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  ? 

38.  Name  and  define  ten  of  the  most  common  forms 
of  leaf -outlines. 

39.  Wliat   are   the   divisions  of   a   compound  leaf 
called?     To  what  are  they  usually  attached? 

40.  Give  the  terms  used  to   describe  the  margin  of 
leaves. 

41.  What  terms  are  employed  in  describing  the  sur- 
face of  leaves  ? 

42.  What  is  a  tendril  and  its  use? 

43.  Wliat  do  you  mean  by  the  term  metamorphosis, 
as  applied  to  flowers  ? 

44.  (a)  Define  inflorescence.     (6)  Name   the   two 
forms. 


262  QUESTIONS   ON  BOTANY. 

45.  What  is  the  peduncle?     Pedicel? 

46.  Name  the  principal  varieties  of  axillary  inflores- 
cence. 

47.  Describe  the  following:  umbel,  spadix,  panicle, 
catkin,  raceme. 

48.  Name  the  parts  of  the  anther. 

49.  Define  and  give  an  example  of  multiple  fruits. 

50.  How  are  plants  nourished,  clothed,  pro- 
tected ? 

51.  (a)  What  are  cryptogams?  (b)  Give  illustra- 
tions, (c)  Where  do  they  grow?  (d)  What  useful 
purpose  do  they  serve  ? 

52.  What  is  the  elementary  organism  of  the  plant? 

53.  Name  the  different  forms  of  cells. 

54.  What  chemical  elements  compose  the  outer  and 
secondary  cell  walls  ? 

55.  Name  the  contents  of  the  vegetable  cell. 

56.  What  is  chlorophyll? 

57.  (a)  Of  what  does  the  growth  of  plants  consist? 
(b)  Explain  the  process  by  which  this  is  accom- 
plished. 

58.  What  different  forms  of  tissue  are  formed  of 
cells? 

59.  Describe  the  tissues  found  in  vegetation. 

60.  (a)  What  are  the  breathing-pores  of  plants? 
(b)  How  are  these  affected  by  moist  and  dry 
weather  ? 

61.  (a)  What  is  the  construction  of  vegetable 
glands?     (6)  What  is  their  use? 


QUESTIONS    O.V    BOTANY.  263 

62.  Into  what  foiir  classes  is  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
according  to  modes  of  growth,  divided? 

63.  Name  and  locate  the  structural  parts  of  Exogens. 

64.  "What  and  where  is  the  cambium  layer? 

65.  State  the  characteristic  structure  of  endogenous 
plants. 

66.  Upon  what  peculiarity  of  growth   is  based  the 
distinction  of  Exogens  and  Endogens  ? 

67.  Describe  the  mode  of  growth  in  Acrogens. 

68.  Name  some  of  the  lowest  forms  of  vegetation, 
and  state  to  what  class  they  belong. 

69.  Show  wherein  animal  life  is  dependent  upon  the 
vegetable  kingdom. 

70.  Of  what  does  the  substance  of  plants  mainly  con- 
sist, and  how  and  whence  is  this  derived? 

71.  Name  the  vital  phenomena  upon  which  the  life  of 
a  plant  depends  ? 

72.  In  what  respect   are    some   plants    and    insects 
mutually  dependent  ? 

73.  How  are  generic  and    specific  terms    in  Botany 
distinguished? 

74.  Ui)on  what  principle  is  the  absorption  of  fluids 
in  a  direction  contrary  to  gravitation? 

73.  What  fact  proves  the  importance  of  a  rotation  of 
crops  in  agriculture  ? 

76.  Describe  the  upward  and  downward  flow  of  the 
sap  and  its  use  in  the  plant  economy. 

77.  In  what  respect  are  plants  and  animals  mutually 
dependent  ? 


264  ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIOXS  OX  BOTA^T. 

78.  Explain  the  principles  upon  which  the  "  natural 
system  "  of  plant  classification  is  based. 

79.  Contrast  the  characteristic  differences  between 
Dicotyledons  and  Monocotj'ledons. 

80.  Name  fruits  belonging  to  the  following  orders : 
Rosacea,  Saxifragaceas,  Ebenacese,  Artocarpaceas, 
Crassulacege. 

81.  To  what  natural  orders  do  the  sunflower,  pea, 
lettuce,  parsle}',  and  sweet  potato  belong? 

82.  What  is  the  fruit  of  the  strawberr}^  plant? 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  OX  BOTAXT. 

1.  Plants,  like  animals,  are  organized  bodies  com- 
posed of  distinct  parts,  endowed  with  vitality  but 
without  sensation.  Like  animals,  the  presence  of 
every  organ  is  essential  to  completeness  in  plants,  but 
the  power  of  volition  and  perception  of  animals  is 
absent  in  plants. 

2.  The  flora  of  a  country  is  the  system  of  vegetable 
species  native  in  a  given  region  or  locality. 

3.  The  term  species  embraces  such  individual  plants 
as  may  have  originated  from  a  common  stock,  bearing 
essential  resemblances  to  each  other  as  well  as  to  their 
common  parent.     A  genus  is  an  assemblage  of  species 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   BOTANY.  265 

closely  related  to  each  other  in  the  structure  of  their 
flowers  and  fruit. 

4.  (a)  Annual,  biennial,  and  perennial,  (b)  Ai? 
annual  plant  continues  but  one  season;  as,  oats,  corn; 
a  biennial  germinates  and  bears  leaves  only  the  first 
season,  and  blossoms,  bears  fruit  and  dies  the  second; 
as,  cabbage,  turnip,  parsnip;  a  perennial  continues 
many  years ;  as,  trees  and  shrubs. 

5.  Deciduous  trees  lose  their  foliage  in  autumn;  as, 
oak,  hickory;  evergreens  retain  their  leaves  and 
verdure  throughout  the  season;  as,  pines,  mag- 
nolias. 

6.  (a)  Germination  is  the  awakening  and  develop- 
ment of  the  embryonic  plant  within  the  seed,  (b^  It 
requires  warmth,  moisture,  air,  and  shade. 

7.  The  embryo  consists  of  the  radicle j  the  descend- 
ing part,  forming  the  root;  the  plumule,  a  stem  bud, 
which  forms  the  ascending  axis  of  the  plant ;  and  the 
cotyledons,  the  seed  lobes,  destined  to  become  the  first 
leaves  of  the  plant,  shown  in  the  two  thick  leaves  of 
the  bean  as  it  emerges  from  the  ground. 

8.  The  number  of  cotyledons;  as,  monocotyledons 
and  dicotyledons. 

9.  Endogens  are  plants  which  grow  by  internal 
accretions  ;  as,  wheat,  grass  ;  exogens  are  those  whose 
stems  grow  by  external  accretions  ;  as  forest  trees. 

10.  Endogenous  plants  have,  in  most  cases,  parallel 
veined  leaves,  while  leaves  of  exogenous  plants  are 
net  veined. 


266 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS   ON   BOTANY. 


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AlSrSWT^RS  TO   QUESTIONS   ON   BOTANY.  267 

12.  The  floral  envelopes  and  the  essential  floral  or- 
gans. The  floral  envelopes  consist  of  one  or  more 
circles  of  leaves  surrounding  the  essential  organs. 
The  outer  circle  is  called  the  calf/x;  the  inner,  if  any  be 
present,  is  called  the  coroUa.  Within  the  envelopes 
are  the  stamens,  small  thread-like  orsfans  varying  in 
number  from  one  to  one  hundred.  The  ^^s<^7s  occupy 
the  center  of  the  flower. 

13.  Perianth  is  used  to  designate  both  the  calyx  and 
corolla ;  the  stamens  are  collectively  called  androRcium  ; 
gyncecium  is  used  for  the  entire  collection  of  pistils. 

14.  The  typical  flower  should  be  complete,  regular, 
symmetrical,  alternating,  and  each  organ  distinct. 

15.  The  term  complete  implies  that  the  four  sets  of 
organs  are  arranged  in  as  many  concentric  circles ; 
regular,  that  the  organs  of  the  same  name  are  all  simi- 
lar; symmetrical y  t\iii.t  \t  has  the  same  number  of  or- 
gans in  each  circle;  alternating ,  that  the  several 
organs  in  each  set  stand  not  opposite  to,  but  alternat- 
ing with  the  organs  of  the  adjacent  set ;  distinct,  that 
all  organs  are  free  from  each  other. 

16.  The  leaves  of  the  calyx  are  styled  sepals,  those 
of  the  corolla,  petals. 

17.  (a)  A  flower  iaperfect  when  it  has  both  stamens 
and  pistils.  (6  )  It  is  complete  when  it  has  stamens,  pis- 
tils, calyx,  and  corolla,  {e)  It  is  apetalous  when  the 
calyx  is  present  without  the  corolla.  (fZ)  It  is  staminate 
when  it  has  stamens  without  pistils,  (e"  It  \s  pistil- 
late when  it  has  pistils  without  stamens. 


268  ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  BOTANY. 

18 .  Glumes  and  pales  represent  the  floral  envelopes 
of  the  grasses. 

19.  Pollen  is  the  fecundating  yellow  dust  contained 
in  the  cells  of  anthers. 

20.  The  pericarp  is  the  envelope  inclosing  the  seed. 
The  fleshy  pericarp,  as  the  berry,  apple,  cherry,  etc., 
is  indehiscent ;  the  dry  pericarp,  as  the  pea,  mustard, 
etc.,  is  dehiscent. 

21.  Drupe,  —  cherry,  peach;  Tryma, — butternut, 
hickory  nut ;  Pome,  —  apple,  haw  ;  Hesperidium,  — 
orange,  lemon;   Samara,  — ash,  maple. 

22.  1st.  To  support  the  plant  in  position.  2nd.  To 
imbibe  from  the  soil  the  food  necessary  to  the  growth 
of  the  plant. 

23.  The  principal  axial  forms  are  the  ramous,  fusi- 
form, napiform,  and  conical;  the  principal  inaxial 
forms  are  fibrous,  tubercular,  coralline,  nodulous,  and 
moniliform. 

24.  Epiphytes,  sometimes  called  air-plants,  are 
those  whose  roots  are  fixed  upon  other  plants,  while 
the  epiphyte  itself  derives  its  nourishment  wholly  from 
the  air.  Parasites  are  those  whose  roots,  penetrating 
to  the  cambium  layer  of  other  plants  and  trees,  appro- 
priate the  stolen  juices  to  their  own  growth. 

25.  Cions,  suckers,  stolons,  offsets,  slips,  layers, 
cuttings,  and  runners. 

26.  Caul'is  is  the  term  applied  to  the  annual  leaf- 
stems  of  herbaceous  plants.  The  culm  is  the  stem  of 
the  grasses  and  the  sedges.  The  term  trunk  is  applied 
to  the  stems  of  trees. 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON   BOTANY.  2C9 

27.  The  hop  vine  invariably  winds  with  the  sun, 
that  is,  from  left  to  right;  while  others,  as  the  morn- 
ing-glory, revolves  in  a  contrary  direction. 

28.  The  rhizome  is  a  prostrate,  fleshy,  rooting  stem, 
often  marked  with  scars,  as  in  hloodroot;  while  the 
creeper  is  more  slender,  much  branched,  many  jointed, 
and  sends  out  rootlets  in  every  direction,  binding  the 
soil  into  turfs  wherever  it  abounds. 

29.  The  tuber  is  not  a  root.  It  is  the  thickened 
portion  of  the  subterranean  stem  and  produces  buds. 

30.  The  bulb  is  a  thickened  mass  of  scales  with  a 
small  axis,  the  whole  forming  a  bud.  The  most  com- 
mon forms  are  tunicated,  as  the  onion,  and  scaly,  as 
in  the  lily. 

31.  A  leaf -bud  contains  the  rudiments  of  a  leafy 
stem  or  branch  folded  up  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
occupy  as  little  space  as  possible ;  the  flower-bud  con- 
tains the  same  elements  transformed  into  the  rudimen- 
tary organs  of  a  flower. 

32.  With  regard  to  position,  the  leaf-bud  may  be 
terminal  or  axillary.  In  addition  to  these,  buds  may 
be  accessory  or  adventitious. 

33.  Vernation  signifies  the  mode  of  arrangement 
and  folding  of  the  leaf  organs  within  the  bud.  The 
following  terms  denote  the  leaf  folding  within  the  bud  : 
reclined,  conduplicate,  plicate,  circinate,  convolute, 
involute,  revolute. 

34.  Alternate;  ^^e.,  one  above  another  on  opposite 
sides.     Scattered;  i.e.,  irregularly  spiral.     Opposite; 


270  ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS  ON   BOTANY. 

i.e.,  two  against  each  other,  at  the  same  node.     Reso- 
lute ;  i.e.,  clustered  regularly. 

35.  Blade,  petiole,  stipules,  margin,  apex,  base, 
midvein,  veins,  veinlets,  veinulets. 

36.  The  leaves  are  the  organs  of  respiration  and 
digestion,  without  which  the  plant  would  soon  die. 

37.  The  leaves  of  Exogens,  or  Dicotyledons,  are 
net-veined;  those  of  Endogcns,  or  Monocotyledons, 
are  parallel-veined;  the  leaves  of  Cryptogams  are 
fork-veined,  dividing  and  subdividing  in  a  forked 
manner. 

38.  Oz7a<;e,  having  the  outline  of  an  egg;  orbicular y 
circular;  lanceolate,  lance-shaped,  tapering  gradually 
toward  the  apex ;  deltoid,  like  the  Greek  letter  A  ;  el- 
liptical, formed  like  an  ellipse  ;  cordate,  heart-shaped; 
auriculate,  ear  shaped  lobes  at  base;  sagittate,  arrow- 
shaped;  cuneate,  wedge-shaped;  reniform,  kidney- 
shaped. 

39.  The  divisions  of  a  compound  leaf  are  called 
leaflets,  and  are  usually  attached  to  the  rachis. 

40.  Dentate,  toothed  ;  serrate,  having  teeth  pointing 
forward;  cre7iate,  with  rounded  teeth;  undulate, 
wavy-edged  ;  repend,  indented  like  the  margin  of  an 
umbrella;  spinous,  projecting  veins;  incised,  cut; 
crispate,  crisped. 

41.  The  leaf  surface  may  be  glabrous  (smooth), 
scabrous  (you^),  pubescent,  covered  with  soft,  short 
hair,  villous,  when  the  hairs  are  long  and  weak,  seri- 
cious,  when  the   hair  is  fine  and  silky,    lanuginous. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   BOTANY.  271 

wooly,  tormentousy  matted  like  felt,  ^occose,  when  soft 
and  fleecy. 

42.  A  tendril  is  a  thread-like  appendage  furnished 
to  weak-stemmed  plants  as  their  means  of  support. 

43.  The  metamorphosis  of  a  flower  is  the  transfor- 
mation of  the  leaf  to  form  the  flower. 

44.  (a)  Inflorescence  is  the  arrangement  of  flow- 
ers on  the  stem.  (6)  The  two  forms  are  axillary,  in 
which  the  flowers  originate  from  axillary  buds,  and 
terminal,  in  which  the  flower  buds  are  terminal. 

45.  The  peduncle  is  the  flower  stalk.  Divisions  of 
the  peduncle  are  termed  pedicels. 

46.  The  spike,  spadix,  catkin,  raceme,  corymb, 
umbel,  panicle,  thyrse,  and  head  are  the  principal 
varieties  of  axillary  inflorescence. 

47.  An  umbel  consists  of  several  pedicels  of  nearly 
the  same  length  radiating  from  the  same  point ;  a 
spadix  is  a  thick,  fleshy  rachis,  with  flowers  closely 
sessile  or  imbedded  on  it ;  a  panicle  is  a  compound  in- 
florescence formed  by  an  irregular  branching  of  the 
pedicels  of  the  raceme,  as  in  oats  ;  the  catkin  is  a 
slender,  pendent  spike  with  scaly  bracts,  as  in  the  oak 
and  willow ;  the  raceme  is  a  rachis  bearing  its  flowers 
on  distinct,  simple  pedicels. 

48.  Filament,  anther-lobe,   connective,  and  valves. 

49.  Multiple  fruits  are  formed  by  the  union  of 
many  separate  flowers,  as  the  pineapple . 

50.  The  first  nourishment  the  j^lant  requires  is  de- 
rived from  the  albumen  contained  within  the  seed; 
afterward  the  sap,  laden  with  the  requisite  food  ele- 


272  ANS^^^:RS  to  questioxs  on  botany. 

ments,  permeates  every  tissue,  and  deposits  within 
each  organ  its  appropriate  food.  The  leaves  and  other 
parts  of  plants  are  covered  with  hairs,  which,  with  the 
bark,  serve  as  clothing.  The  sharp  thorns,  spikes  and 
prickles,  with  which  many  plants  are  supplied,  would 
seem  to  imply  a  provision  for  self-defense. 

51.  (rt)  Cryptogams  are  flowerless  plants,  (b) 
Mosses,  ferns,  lichens,  seaweed,  mushrooms,  (c)  They 
grow  on  rocks,  sand,  tree-trunks,  cinders,  etc.  (d) 
They  form  the  basis  of  all  vegetable  and  animal  life. 
By  the  decay  of  successive  generations  of  these  simple 
forms  soil  is  formed  and  fertilized,  and  the  growth  of 
higher  orders,  as  grains,  grasses  and  trees,  is  rendered 
possible. 

52.  The  cell,  a  closed  sac  of  membrane  containing  a 
fluid,  by  its  multiplied  aggregation,  makes  up  the  mass 
of  all  vegetation. 

53.  Spiral,  annular,  porous,  and  reticulated. 

54.  Carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 

55.  While  some  cells  contain  nothing  but  air  and 
others  solid  matter,  the  greater  number  are  filled  with 
both  fluids  and  solids.  These  are  the  cytoUast,  a  glob- 
ular atom,  designed  to  form  new  cells,  and  proto  pi  a  S7nj 
the  nourishing  semi-fluid. 

56.  Chlorovhyl  is  the  green  coloring  matter  of 
leaves. 

57.  {a)  The  growth  of  plants  consists  of  the  de- 
velopment of  new  cells.  (5)  The  primordial  utricle 
divides  into  two  or  more  parts  by  new  walls  growing 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   BOTANY.  273 

from  its  sides  till  the^^meet,  and  thus  cells  multiplying 
by  millions,  build  up  the  fiibric  of  the  plant. 

68.  Cellular  tissue,  termed  parenchyma;  fibrous 
tissue,  or  pleurenchyma ;  vascular  tissue,  or  trachen- 
chyma ;  laticiferous  tissue,  or  cienchyma. 

59.  Parenchyma y  the  most  common  form  of  tissue, 
is  composed  of  spheroidal  cells.  It  is  found  in  all 
young  growths, — the  pith,  leaf,  and  stem;  in  the 
pulp  of  fruits,  and  in  the  soft  parts  of  all  plants. 

Pleurenchyma  consists  of  elongated  cells  cohering 
by  their  sides  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  continuous 
fibre,  as  in  flax  and  hemp. 

Trachenchyma  is  a  tissue  of  vessels  and  tubes. 
These  extend  lengthwise  and  form  rows  of  cells  joined 
end  to  end,  and  fuse  into  one  by  the  absorption  of  the 
contiguous  walls. 

Cienchyma  is  a  system  of  milk  vessels,  secreting 
the  peculiar  juice  of  the  plant,  as  opium,  gamboge, 
resin,  etc. 

60.  (a)  Little  chinks  in  the  leaf-epidermis,  termed 
stomata.  (b)  Each  stoma  is  guarded  by  cells  of  such 
construction  as  to  open  in  moist  weather  and  close  in  dry. 

61.  (a)  Glands  are  cellular  structures  within  the 
epidermis,  or  at  the  base  of  a  hair,  or  at  its  summit. 
{b)  Their  use  is  to  elaborate  and  contain  the  peculiar 
secretions  of  plants,  such  as  oils,  resins,  honey, 
poisons,  etc. 

62.  Into  Exogens,  or  outside-growers,  JEndogens,  or 
inside-growers,  Acrogens,  or  point-growers,  and  TJiall- 
ogens,  or  mass-growers. 

18 


274  ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS   ON  BOTANY. 

63.  1st.  The  p^77^,  consisting  of  parenchyma,  which 
occupies  the  central  part  of  the  stem.  2nd.  The 
medullary  sheath,  a  thin,  delicate  tissue,  composed  of 
spiral  vessels,  which  immediately  surrounds  the  pith. 
3rd.  The  wood  proper,  which  is  arranged  in  concen- 
tric zones  or  layers  about  the  central  mass.  This 
consists  of  two  kinds  —  the  sap-wood  and  heart-wood. 
4th.  The  bark,  covering  and  protecting  the  wood.  It 
consists  of  the  three  parts  —  the  inner  or  white  bark, 
the  middle  or  green  bark,  and  the  outer  or  brown  bark. 

64.  The  cambium  layer  is  a  muscilaginous-sap  solu- 
tion of  the  starchy  deposits  of  the  preceding  year.  It 
is  between  the  wood  and  white  bark,  serving  to  loosen 
the  latter,  and  thus  render  it  easy  to  peel  from  the 
wood. 

65.  The  stem  of  an  endogenous  plant  is  composed 
of  tissues  similar  to  those  of  the  exogenous  stem,  but 
there  is  no  distinction  of  bark,  wood,  pith,  or  annual 
layers  in  the  endogen. 

66.  Upon  the  characteristic  method  of  annual  accre- 
tions;—  in  the  Exogens  the  yearly  increments  are 
added  to  the  outside,  while  the  addition  of  new  mate- 
rial in  the  Endogens  is  to  the  interior. 

67.  The  stems  of  Acrogens  advance  beneath  or 
above  the  ground,  full  formed,  growing  only  at  the 
end. 

68.  Mildew,  frog  spittle,  lichens,  seaweeds ,  puff-balls 
and  mushrooms,  belonging  to  the  Thallogens,  or  mass- 
growers,  are  among  the  lowest  forms  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom. 


ANS'V\^RS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  BOTANY.      275 

69.  The  process  of  vegetation  consists  in  imbibing 
the  crude  matters  of  the  earth  and  air,  and  elaboratins: 
into  food  the  elements  which  animals  require  for  their 
growth  and  sustenance. 

70.  The  substance  of  plants  consists  mainly  of 
water  derived  from  the  moisture  of  the  air  and  the 
soil,  through  the  absorptive  powers  of  the  leaves  and 
roots. 

71.  Absorption,  circulation,  exhalation,  assimila- 
tion, and  secretion. 

72.  The  propagation  and  continuance  of  certain 
species  of  plants  in  a  given  locality  require  cross-fer- 
tilization. This  is  effected  sometimes  by  insects, 
which,  attracted  by  the  brilliant  tints  and  savory 
juices  contained  within  the  nectary,  in  return  for 
the  honey  they  extract,  carry  the  fertilizing  pol- 
len from  the  anther  to  distant  plants  of  the  same 
species. 

73.  Generic  names  are  nouns,  and  should  always 
begin  with  capitals.  Specific  names  are  generally 
adjectives,  and  should  not  begin  with  capitals  except 
when  derived  from  the  name  of  a  country  or  person, 
or  when  the  term  may  be  a  noun. 

74.  It  is  due  to  the  physical  principles  of  capillary 
attraction  and  endosmose. 

75.  If  wheat,  buckwheat,  peas,  and  cabbage  be 
grown  upon  the  same  land,  it  will  be  obsei-ved  that  the 
wheat  will  select  the  silica^  the  buckwheat,  the  mag- 
nesia,  the  pea,  the  lime,  and  the  cabbage  the  potash, 
each  for  its  peculiar  want. 


276      ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  BOTANY. 

76.  Starting  from  the  roots  as  crude  sap,  in  the 
forra  of  colorless  water,  charged  with  minute  quanti- 
ties of  gases  and  mineral  salts,  it  passes  upward  dis- 
solving the  dextrine  and  sugar  of  the  cells  and  gaining 
in  density,  till  it  reaches  the  leaves,  where  it  parts  with 
a  large  portion  of  the  water  by  exhalation,  and  receives 
carbon  in  return.  After  undergoing  important  chem- 
ical changes,  under  the  action  of  the  air  and  light,  it 
becomes  rich  in  nutritive  material  and  returns  upon 
its  downward  course  through  the  barky  tissues,  dis- 
tributing to  every  organ  its  due  proportion  of  appro- 
priate food. 

77.  The  carbonic  acid  exhaled  by  animals  if  left  to 
accumulate  would  in  time  destroy  all  animal  life  upon 
the  globe.  The  necessities  of  the  plant  demand  this 
gas,  and  in  the  very  process  of  its  appropriation  the 
life-giving  oxygen,  so  essential  to  animal  existence,  is 
returned  by  the  plant  to  the  atmosphere. 

78.  The  natural  system  is  based  upon  the  natural 
affinities  and  resemblances  of  plants  by  which  nature 
has  distinguished  them  into  groups  and  families. 

79.  Dicotyledons  grow  by  new  layers  external  to 
the  wood,  but  inside  of  the  bark  ;  their  leaves  are  net- 
veined,  flowers  rarely  three-parted,  seeds  with  two  or 
more  cotyledons,  and  with  an  axial  root  extending 
downward  from  the  radicle.  Monocotyledons  grow 
by  scattered,  internal  wood  bundles;  their  leaves  are 
parallel  veined,  flowers  generally  three-parted,  seeds 
with  one  cotyledon,  while  the  radicle  never  produces 
an  axial  root. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON   BOTANY.  277 

80.  Rosaceas:  cherry,  apricot,  plum,  almond,  peach. 
Saxif ragaceas :  hydrangea.  Ebenaceoe,  persimmon. 
Artocarpaceas :  fig,  osage  orange,  mulberry.  Crassu- 
lacese :  currant,  gooseberry. 

81.  The  sunflower  belongs  to  the  order  of  Compos- 
itae;  the  pea,  to  the  Leguminosje;  lettuce,  to  the 
Composite;  parsley,  to  the  Umbellif eras ;  the  sweet 
potato  to  the  Convolvulacete. 

82.  It  consists  of  the  entire  inflorescence  developed 
into  a  mass  of  united  pericarps. 


QUESTIONS    ON   PHYSIOLOGY. 

1.  Define  the  terms  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hy- 
giene. 

2.  Name  the  primary  animal  tissues. 

3.  («)  What  are  membranes?     (6)  State  their  uses. 

4.  Name  the  principal  membranes  of  the  body. 

5.  What  is  the  number  and  names  of  the  ultimate 
elements  composing  the  human  body  ? 

6.  Describe  the  bones  and  state  their  uses. 

7.  What  is  the  composition  of  bone  at  different 
periods  of  life  ? 

8.  How  many  bones  in  the  human  body? 

9.  Draw  an  outline  showing  the  relative  position 
of  the  different  bones  in  the  human  skeleton. 

10.  (a)  Name  and  illustrate  the  different  kinds  of 
movable  joints.  (6)  State  how  their  movements  are 
facilitated. 

11.  (a)  With  what  are  the  bones  covered?  (b) 
What  is  the  purpose  of  this  covering?  (c)  What 
peculiar  disease  originates  beneath  this  covering? 

12.  What  is  the  use  of  the  synovia? 

278 


QUESTIONS   ON    PHYSIOLOGY.  279 

13.  What  mechanical  and  botanical  principle  is 
illustrated  in  the  long  bones? 

14.  State  the  process  by  which  nature  repairs  a 
broken  bone. 

15.  (a)  What  are  sprains ?  (b)  What  care  do  they 
require  ? 

16.  («)  Name  the  characteristic  property  and  law 
of  muscles.  (6)  What  diversity  of  form  is  observed 
in  the  adaptation  of  the  muscles  to  their  various  posi- 
tion and  uses? 

17.  What  is  the  general  arrangement  of  muscles 
with  respect  to  each  other? 

18.  Into  what  two  classes,  with  respect  to  action, 
are  the  muscles  divided?     Illustrate  each  class. 

19.  (a)  How  many  muscles  in  the  human  body? 
(6)  How  are  the  muscles  of  the  limbs  distinguished 
as  to  their  use  ? 

20.  Name  two  important  muscles  in  each  of  the 
following  regions:  head,  front  part  of  trunk,  back 
part  of  trunk,  upper  limbs,  lower  limbs. 

21.  Name  some  of  the  uses  which  muscles  serve  in 
the  animal  economy. 

22.  (rt)  Of  what  are  tendons  cbmposed?  (b) 
State  their  use. 

23.  Show  how  the  bones  are  used  as  levers  of  the 
1st,  2nd,  and  3rd  classes. 

24.  State  the  effect  upon  the  muscles  of  (a)  use 
(b)  disuse,  (c)  misuse. 

23.  Why  should  one  abstain  from  severe  exercise 
immediately  before  and  after  eating? 


280  QUESTIONS   ON  PHYSIOLOGY. 

26.  State  the  proper  method  and  necessary  extent 
of  educating  muscles. 

27.  How  does  the  character  of  a  child's  early  mus- 
cular training  determine  his  habits  of  action  in  later 
life? 

28.  What  organs  constitute  the  nutritive  apparatus? 

29.  Name  the  digestive  organs. 

30.  What  preparatory  changes  does  food  undergo 
before  it  becomes  nourishment  for  the  body? 

31.  Name,  locate,  and  state  the  use  of  the  salivary 
glands. 

32.  Name  and  locate  the  fluids  involved  in  the  pro- 
cess of  digestion. 

33.  Trace  a  particle  of  food  from  the  mouth  until  it 
reaches  the  blood. 

34.  What  is  the  principal  use  of  the  saliva? 

35.  State  the  conditions  upon  which  the  health  of 
the  digestive  organs  depend. 

36.  Under  what  circumstances  is  digestion  most 
perfect? 

37.  What  does  the  term  absorption  comprehend? 

38.  Name  the  absorbents. 

39.  What  are  the  principal  secretions  and  excretions 
of  the  human  body  ? 

40.  What  is  the  length  of  time  required  for  diges- 
tion ? 

41.  State  the  object  of  cooking  foocf,  and  how  this 
is  secured. 

42.  Mention  the  evils  arising  from  rapid  eating. 

43.  Name  the  or^^ans  of  circulation. 


QUESTIONS    ON   niYSIOLOGY.  281 

44.  Describe  the  heart. 

45.  Why  is  there  sometimes  said  to  be  two  hearts? 

46.  Describe  the  circulation  of  blood,  distinguish- 
ing between  pulmonary  and  systemic  circulation. 

47.  How  does  the  blood  differ  in  color  in  different 
parts  of  its  circulation?     State  the  cause. 

48.  What  time  is  required  for  the  complete  circula- 
tion of  the  blood  through  the  system  ? 

49.  How  is  a  backward  flow  of  blood  prevented? 

50.  What  is  the  normal  temj)erature  of  the  body  ? 

51.  Which  end  of  a  ruptured  artery  should  be  tied? 
Why? 

52.  Define  coagulation,  and  state  its  use. 

53.  State  the  use  of  circulation  of  the  blood. 

54.  Name  the  three  classes  of  organic  substances 
used  for  food. 

55.  How  do  you  account  for  the  arteries  being 
deep-seated,  while  the  veins  are  generally  superficial? 

56.  How  and  through  what  organ  is  the  oxygen  ad- 
mitted to  the  blood  ? 

57.  State  the  functions  of  the  lymphatics;  of  the 
lacteal  s. 

58.  How  can  you  distinguish  in  external  hem- 
orrhage, whether  the  blood  comes  from  an  artery  or  a 
vein  ? 

59.  Name  the  animal  and  vegetative  functions  of  the 
body. 

60.  What  three  evils  result  from  tight  lacing? 

61.  Name  the  respiratory  and  vocal  organs. 


282  QUESTIONS    ox   PHYSIOLOGY. 

62.  State  the  immediate  and  ultimate  object  of 
respiration. 

63.  How  does  the  amount  of  air  inhaled  compare 
with  the  quantity  exhaled  ? 

64.  In  what  way  may  the  variety  of  tones  of  differ- 
ent voices  be  accounted  for  ? 

65.  Upon  what  does  the  strength  of  the  voice  de- 
pend ? 

66.  Are  the  lungs  filled  and  emptied  completely  by 
respiration?  What  is  the  importance  of  this  provis- 
ion? 

67.  What  diseases  are  apt  to  attack  the  respiratory 
organs?  How  can  these  be  provided  against  in  the 
school  room? 

68.  What  anatomical  changes  cause  the  change  in  a 
boy's  voice  at  puberty? 

69.  What  three  natural  remedies  for  consumption 
are  suggested  by  physiology  and  hygiene  ? 

70.  Explain  the  origin  and  progress  of  a  cold. 

71.  What  is  congestion ?     How  indicated? 

72.  State  the  conditions  upon  which  pure  blood  is 
dependent. 

73.  What  physical  evils  result  from  impure  blood? 

74.  What  is  the  usual  number  of  respirations  per 
minute?     How  can  the  frequency  be  diminished? 

75.  Into  what  two  secondary  systems  may  the  ner- 
vous system  be  divided  ? 

76.  (a)  Describe  the  two  kinds  of  matter  which 
compose  the  nervous  system.  (6)  State  their  func- 
tions. 


QUESTIOXS   ON   PHYSIOLOGY.  283 

77.  Give  a  brief  description  of  the  human  brain. 

78.  What  is  the  spinal  cord  ?  What  means  of  pro- 
tection suggest  its  importance  ? 

79.  Where  is  the  seat  of  pain?     Illustrate. 

80.  Name  in  order  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  ner- 
vous system. 

81.  Wiiy,  in  apoplexy,  when  the  right  side  of  the 
body  becomes  paralyzed,  is  the  left  side  of  the  face 
usually  affected  ? 

82.  Give  examples  of  associated  sensations  in  which 
nerves  are  excited  by  sight,  hearing,  and  smell. 

83.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  cerebrum  and  the 
cerebellum  respectively? 

84.  Name  the  nerves  of  special  sense  and  state  in 
what  they  differ  from  other  nerves. 

85.  Name  habits  which  particularly  impair  the  ner- 
vous system. 

86.  What  conditions  are  essential  to  the  highest 
mental  development  and  vigor? 

87.  (a)  What  is  meant  by  "reflex  action  of  the 
spinalcord?"     (6)  Give  examples,     (c)  State itsuse. 

88.  Describe  the  globe  of  the  e3'e  and  name  its  parts. 

89.  How  do  we  change  the  vision  in  looking  from 
near  objects  to  distant  ones  in  the  same  direction  ? 

90.  (a)  What  four  classes  of  substances  excite  the 
sense  of  taste?     (b)  Locate  the  sense  of  taste. 

91.  Where  is  the  sense  of  touch  most  delicate? 
How  may  this  be  shown  ? 

92.  What  purpose  does  the  skin  serve? 

93.  State  the  office  of  perspiration. 


284         ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  PHYSIOLOGY. 

94.  What  deleterious  eftects  result  from  having  the 
air  too  dry  in  occupied  rooms? 

95.  State  briefly  some  important  directions  regard- 
ing the  manner  of  dressing  most  conducive  to  health. 

96.  What  effect  does  the  loss  of  sleeD  have  upon 
the  body  and  the  mind  ? 

97.  Show  in  what.manner  bathing  is  beneficial? 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    PHYSIOLOGY. 

1.  Anatomy  is  the  description  of  the  form  and  posi- 
tion of  the  organs  of  animal  bodies.  Physiology  is 
the  description  of  the  uses  of  these  organs.  Hygiene 
treats  of  the  preservation  of  health. 

2.  The  primary  tissues  are  the  fibrous,  areolar,  car- 
tilaginous, which  collectively  form  the  connective  tis- 
sues, and  the  adipose,  sclerous,  muscular,  tubular,  and 
nervous  tissues. 

3.  (a)  Membranes  are  thin,  extended,  soft,  trans- 
parent tissues,  formed  by  fibers  interwoven  like  net- 
work. (6)  They  serve  to  cover  some  part  of  the 
body,  or  to  absorb  or  secrete  certain  fluids. 

4.  The  principal  membranes  are  the  basement,  ser- 
ous, synovial,  and  mucous  membranes. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    PHYSIOLOGY.  285 

5.  There  are  fourteen  ultimate  elements,  viz, :  oxy- 
f^en,  hydrogen,  carbon,  nitrogen,  calcium,  potassium, 
fsodium,  chlorine,  phosphorous,  sulphur,  silicon,  iron, 
magnesium,  and  fluorine. 

6.  The  bones  are  firm  and  hard,  combining  strength 
and  lightness.  They  serve  as  a  framework  or  skeleton 
for  preserving  the  shape  of  the  body  and  for  the  pro- 
tection of  its  most  delicate  organs,  and  for  the  attach- 
ment of  muscles. 

7.  The  bones  consist  of  animal  and  mineral  matter. 
In  early  life  the  animal  matter  predominates ;  at  ma- 
turity the  proportion  is  about  one  part  of  animal  to 
two  parts  of  mineral  matter  ;  while,  as  age  advances, 
the  quantity  of  mineral  matter  greatly  exceeds  that  of 
animal  substance. 

8.  The  number  of  bones  varies  at  different  periods 
of  life.  In  childhood  the  number  is  greater  than  in 
later  life,  many  bones  consisting  of  two  parts  growing 
together,  forming  but  one  bone  in  the  adult.  The 
number  usually  given,  exclusive  of  the  teeth,  is  208. 


286 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIOXS    ON   PHYSIOLOGY. 


The  Head. 


The  Cranium. 


The  r."cc. 


r Frontal  bone. 

Two  Parietal  bones. 
i  Two  Temporal  bones. 
"{  Sphenoid  bone. 

p:thmoi(.l  bone. 
[Occipital  bone. 

Two  Superior  Maxillary  bones. 

Inferior  Maxillary  bone. 

Two  Malar  bones. 

Two  Lachrymal  bones. 

Two  Turbinated  bones. 

Two  Nasal  bones. 

Vomer. 

Two  Palate  bones. 


(Hammer. 
Anvil. 
StiiTup. 


The  Truxk. 


The  Spinal 
Column. 


{Cervical  Vertebrae, 
Dorsal  Vertebrse. 
Lumbar  Vertebrae. 


The  Ribs. 


f  True  Ribs. 

t  False  Ribs. 
The  Sternum. 
The  Os  Hyoides. 

iTwo  Innominata. 
Sacrum. 
Coccyx. 


The  Limbs. 


The  Upper 
Limbs. 


The  Lower 
Limbs. 


The  Shoulder. 
The  Arm. 


The  Hand. 


The  Lee 


The  Foot. 


Clavicle  (2). 
Scapula  (2). 
f  Humerus. 
\  Radius  and  Ulna. 
Carpal  bones. 
Metacarpal  bones 
Phalanges. 

(Femur. 
Patella. 
Tibia  and  Fibula. 
7  Tarsal  bones. 
5  Metatarsal  bones 
li  Phalanges. 


f8C 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS   ON   PHYSIOLOGY.  287 

10.  (a)  Movable  joints  are  of  three  kinds  —  the 
Pkiniform,  the  Hinge,  and  the  Ball  and  /iSocA;e^  joints. 
The  Planiform  joint  is  found  where  gliding  movements 
are  required,  as  in  the  carpus  and  metacarpus;  the 
hinge  joint,  where  there  is  motion  in  two  directions  only, 
backward  and  forward,  as  in  the  knee  and  the  elbow; 
the  ball  and  socket  joint,  where  there  is  free  movement 
in  all  directions,  as  in  the  hip  and  shoulder  joints,  (b) 
They  are  provided  with  cartilage  where  the  surfaces  are 
in  contact,  and  supplied  with  synovial  membrane  and 
connecting  ligaments. 

11.  (a)  The  bones  are  covered,  as  with  a  sac,  by  a 
dense,  white,  fibrous  membrane  cnWed periosteum.  (6) 
It  serves  to  transmit  blood-vessels  into  the  bone,  thus 
furnishing  nutriment,  and  gives  insertion  to  muscles, 
tendons,  and  ligaments,  (c)  The  disease  called 
"  felon  "  commences  in  or  beneath  the  periosteum. 

12.  The  use  of  the  synovia  is  that  of  a  lubricating 
fluid,  enabling  the  surface  of  the  bones  to  move  more 
freely  upon  each  other,  preventing  friction  and  conse- 
quent Avear. 

13.  The  shafts  of  long  bones  are  made  hollow,  giving 
not  only  lightness  but  strength,  according  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  mechanics,  that  with  a  given  amount  of  mate- 
rial, a  hollow  cylinder  will  sustain  more  weight  than  a 
solid  one  of  the  same  dimensions.  The  culms  of 
grasses  illustrate  the  same  principle. 

14.  The  blood  which  flows  in  consequence  of  the  in- 
jury is  gradually  absorbed,  and  gives  place  to  a  watery 
fluid,  which,  thickening  from   day  to  day,  acquires  at 


288         ANSWERS    TO    QUl<:STIONS    ON   PHYSIOLOGY. 

the  end  of  two  weeks,  the  consistency  of  jelly.  This 
begins  to  harden  by  a  deposit  of  new  bone-substance, 
until  in  five  or  six  weeks,  the  broken  bone  is  united. 

15.  (a)  Sprains  are  caused  by  a  twisting,  straining, 
or  tearing  of  the  connecting  ligaments  of  bones  from 
their  attachments,  (b)  As  a  sprain  may  be  as  serious 
as  a  broken  bone,  care  should  be  exercised,  lest  the 
use  of  the  limb  before  the  ligament  is  restored  to  its 
place  may  impair  its  usefulness. 

16.  (a)  The  characteristic  property  of  muscles  is 
contractility,  and  the  law  is  that  they  shall  contract 
toward  the  center,  (b)  The  general  forms  or  shapes 
of  muscles  are  spindle-shaped,  radiate,  penniform,  bi- 
penniform,  and  07'bicular. 

17.  With  the  exception  of  twelve  single  muscles,  they 
are  all  arranged  in  pairs,  each  having  its  antagonist ; 
so  that  as  they  contract  and  expand  alternately,  the 
bone  to  which  they  are  attached  is  moved  to  and  fro. 

18.  Into  voluntary,  those  which  are  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  will,  as  the  muscles  of  the  limbs,  and  invol- 
untary, those  which  cannot  be  controlled  by  the  will, 
as  the  muscles  of  the  heart. 

19.  (a)  The  number  exceeds  five  hundred,  {b)  In 
regard  to  their  use  the  limb  muscles  may  be  distin- 
guished as  flexors,  those  used  to  bend  the  limbs, 
and  extensors,  those  which  are  used  to  extend  the 
limbs. 

20.  Head  and  neck:  oral,  orbitidar  and  masseter; 
front  part  of  trunk :  the  external  oblique  and  the 
straight  abdominal ;  back  part  of  trunk;  the  trapezius 


ANSWERS   TO   QUEST10^^S    ON   PHYSIOLOGY.  289 

and  the  superior  serrated  muscles;  the  upper  limbs: 
the  biceps  and  the  radio-carpal  extensor ;  the  lower 
limbs  :  the  gluteal  and  sartorius. 

21.  They  give  form  and  symmetry  to  the  body,  en- 
close the  cavities,  and  form  a  firm,  defensive,  but 
yielding  wall  in  the  trunk,  cover  and  move  the 
limbs,  and  give  to  some  of  the  joints  their  principal 
protection.  By  means  of  muscular  action,  the  heart 
beats,  the  blood  circulates,  and  respiration  is  carried  on. 

22.  (a)  Tendons  are  composed  of  the  inelastic, 
white-fibrous  tissue,  and  possess  great  strength. 
(b)  They  serve  to  convey  the  contractile  power  of 
muscles  to  the  bones,  and  connect  the  muscles  with 
the  bones. 

23.  The  movements  of  the  head  illustrate  a  lever  of 
the  first  class :  the  back  or  front  is  the  weight,  the 
backbone  is  the  fulcrum,  and  the  muscles  at  the  back 
or  front  of  the  neck  are  the  powers  by  which  we  toss 
or  bow  the  head. 

Raising  the  body  on  tiptoe  illustrates  a  lever  of  the 
second  class:  the  toes  resting  on  the  ground  is  the 
fulcrum,  the  weight  of  the  body  is  the  weight,  and 
the  muscles  of  the  calf,  the  power. 

Raising  the  lower  jaw  illustrates  a  lever  of  the  third 
class.  Another  familiar  example  is  the  elbow,  in  which 
the  fulcrum  is  at  the  joint,  the  weight  is  the  forearm 
and  hand,  and  the  power  is  in  the  biceps  and  brachial 
muscles. 

24.  (a)  By  judicious  use  muscle  grows  larger, 
and    becomes    hard,    compact,    and    darker-colored. 

19 


290         ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    PHYSIOLOGY. 

(b)  By  disuse,  it  decreases  in  size,  and  becomes  soft, 
flabby  and  pale,  (c)  By  misuse,  the  muscle  is  often 
strained  and  blood  vessels  burst  in  our  efforts  to  per- 
form feats  beyond  our  muscular  power. 

25.  Because  the  vigor  of  the  system  is  needed 
for  the  digestive  functions.  Nature  can  sustain  in 
vigorous  activity  but  one  function  at  a  time. 

26.  The  training  of  muscles  to  the  performance  of 
any  exercise  in  which  the  highest  excellence  is  desired 
should  be  begun  in  early  life,  and  continued  regularly 
and  systematically  till  every  muscle  and  every  fiber  is 
under  the  control  of  the  will. 

27.  An  individual's  speech,  writing,  singing,  atti- 
tudes, walking,  and  actions  are  all  determined  by  his 
first  movements  in  these  exercises.  If  exactness  is  not 
required  in  the  beginning,  and  continued  during  the 
formative  period  of  habit,  awkwardness  and  impropri- 
ety must  always  characterize  the  exercises  and  move- 
ments of  the  individual  through  life. 

28.  The  nutritive  apparatus  includes  the  digestive, 
the  absorptive,  the  circulatory ,  the  assitnilatory ,  and  the 
respiratory  organs. 

29.  The  digestive  organs  are  the  mouth,  teeth,  sali- 
vary glands,  palate,  pharynx,  cesophagus,  stomach,  in- 
testines, liver,  pancreas,  and  spleen. 

30.  1st.  Digestion,  by  which  the  food  is  reduced  to 
a  soluble  condition.  2nd.  Absorption,hy  \N\nch.,yih.en 
digested,  it  is  imbibed  into  the  blood.  3rd.  Circula- 
tion, which  carries  the  enriched  blood  to  the  various 
parts  of  the  system.     4th.  Assimilation,   by  which 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   PHYSIOLOGY.         291 

each  tissue  derives  from  the  blood  the  materials  nec- 
essary for  its  support. 

81.  The  salivary  glands  consist  of  three  glands  on 
each  side  of  the  mouth.  The  parotid  gland  is  situated 
in  front  of  the  external  ear  and  behind  the  angle  of 
the  lower  jaw.  The  submaxillary  gland  is  situated 
within  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  sublingual 
gland  is  situated  on  the  floor  of  the  mouth,  beneath 
the  side  of  the  tongue.  They  all  secrete  a  liquid 
called  saliva. 

32.  1st.  The  saliva  in  the  mouth;  2nd.  The  gastric 
juice,  in  the  stomach;  3rd.  The  bile,  in  the  small  in- 
testines. 4th.  The  pancreatic  juice,  in  the  small  in- 
testines. 5th.  The  intestinal  juice,  in  the  small 
intestines. 

33  From  the  mouth,  where  the  food  is  chewed  and 
insalivated,  it  passes  through  the  pharynx  and  oesopha- 
gus at  the  cardiac  orifice  into  the  stomach.  Here  it 
undergoes  a  churning  process  until  every  particle  is 
subjected  to  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice,  which  di- 
gests the  albuminoid  substances  in  it,  and  changes 
them  to  albuminose.  The  work  of  the  stomach  being 
completed,  the  food  passes  through  the  pyloric  orifice 
into  the  small  intestines,  where  it  is  subjected  to  the 
pancreatic  fluid,  the  bile  and  the  intestinal  juice,  which 
digest  the  starch  and  fat,  changing  the  starch  into 
sugar  and  the  fat  into  chyle.  Here  the  digested  mass, 
called  collectively  the  chyle,  is  absorbed  by  the  lacteals 
and  blood  vessels  and  taken  into  the  general  circula- 
tion. 


292         ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  PHYSIOLOGY. 

34.  It  moistens  the  food  and  thus  facilitates  diges- 
tion. 

35.  1st.  The  quantity  of  food ;  this  should  simply 
equal  the  waste  of  the  system.  2nd.  The  quality  of 
food,  which  should  be  nutritive  and  digestible.  3rd. 
manner  of  taking  food.  Food  should  be  neither  too 
hot  nor  too  cold ;  it  should  be  sufficiently  masticated 
and  taken  at  regular  intervals.  4th.  The  system 
should  be  mentally  and  physically  conditioned  to  re- 
ceive food. 

36.  When  the  action  of  the  cutaneous  vessels  is 
energetic,  the  mind  free  from  absorbing  thought,  ex- 
citement or  depression,  the  blood  well  purified,  and  the 
muscular  system  duly  exercised. 

37.  Absorption  is  the  general  term  for  that  process 
by  which  all  soluble  substances,  external  to  the  animal 
body,  are  introduced  into  the  tissues  of  the  body. 
It  includes  also  the  process  by  which  portions  of  the 
hving  tissues  are  themselves  removed,  or  absorbed 
within  the  body. 

38.  The  absorbents  are  the  lymphatic  vessels  of  the 
small  intestines,  termed  lacteals,  lymphatic  glands, 
vessels,  and  ducts,  and  the  thoracic  duct. 

39.  Mucus,  sebaceous  matter,  perspiration,  tears, 
serous  fluid,  saliva,  gastric  juice,  pancreatic  juice,  in- 
testinal juice,  and  bile. 

40.  From  two  to  four  hours,  according  to  the  nature 
of  food,  state  of  the  system  and  perfection  of  mastica- 
tion. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSIOLOGY.         293 

41.  The  object  of  cooking  food  is  to  render  it  more 
palatable  and  easily  digested.  Cooking  breaks  the 
cells  and  softens  the  fibers  of  which  the  food  is  com- 
posed. 

42.  1st.  The  food  is  swallowed  without  sufficient 
saliva.  2nd.  The  particles  of  food  are  so  large  as  to 
hinder  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice,  which  is  often 
weakened  by  the  use  of  drinks  poured  down  with  the 
food.  3rd.  We  do- not  realize  the  quantity  eaten  until 
the  stomach  is  overloaded.  4th.  Failing  to  get  the  taste 
of  our  food  we  think  it  insipid,  and  resort  to  condi- 
ments which  over  stimulate  the  digestive  organs. 

43.  The  heart,  arteries,  capillaries,  and  veins. 

44.  The  heart  is  the  hollow  muscle  enclosed  m  a 
sac,  termed  pericardium.  It  is  situated  between  the 
lungs.  It  is  conical  in  shape,  the  apex  pointing  down- 
ward, forward,  and  to  the  left.  Its  only  attachments 
are  the  large  blood-vessels  by  which  it  is  joined  to 
the  vertebral  column. 

45.  On  account  of  the  division  of  the  heart  by  a 
muscular  septum  into  two  parts  —  the  right  and  left. 
Each  of  these  contains  two  apartments,  termed  auricles 
and  ventricles,  the  ventricles  being  next  the  apex. 
The  two  sides  have  no  communication,  each  perform- 
ing a  separate  function.  The  right  is  sometimes 
termed  ihQ  pulmonic  heart,  the  left,  the  systemic  heart. 

46.  In  pulmonic  circulation  the  right  auricle  after 
receiving  the  blood  from  two  large  veins,  contra c^.s 
and  sends  it  into  the  right  ventricle.  This  in  turn  con- 
tracts and  sends  it  through  the  pulmonary  artery  to  the 


294        ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   PHYSIOLOGY. 

lungs,  where  it  is  purified  and  becomes  a  bright  arterial 
blood.  Here  the  systemic  circulation  begins  by  the 
entrance  of  the  blood  into  the  left  auricle,  which,  con- 
tracting, sends  it  to  the  left  ventricle,  from  which  it  is 
transmitted  through  the  aorta  to  all  parts  of  the  system, 
from  which  it  returns  through  the  capillaries  and  veins 
to  the  right  auricle  to  repeat  its  course  as  before. 

47.  As  the  blood  visits  the  different  organs  it  both 
gives  out  and  gathers  up  materials.  In  the  arterial 
circulation  it  is  enriched  with  food,  and  scarlet  with 
oxygen  received  in  the  lungs ;  returning  from  the 
organs  it  has  fed,  it  is  impoverished  in  quality  and 
purple  in  color. 

48.  The  entire  mass  is  believed  to  make  the  circuit 
in  from  one  to  two  minutes. 

49.  A  backward  flow  in  the  auricles  i?  prevented  by 
the  contraction  of  muscular  fibers  about  the  mouths  of 
the  veins,  and  by  valves  in  the  veins. 

50.  About  98°  Fahrenheit. 

51.  The  end  next  to  the  heart,  because  the  blood  in 
arteries  flows  from  the  heart. 

52.  Coagulation  is  a  thickening  or  hardening  of  the 
blood.  It  is  serviceable  in  stopping  the  flow  of  blood 
from  a  wounded  vein. 

53.  Circulation  of  the  blood  carries  nutrition  to  all 
parts  of  the  system,  and  also  carries  impurities  to  the 
lungs  to  be  exhaled. 

64.  Farinaceous,  saccharine,  and  albuminous. 
55.  An  injury  to  the  more  important  arteries  would 
soon  result  in  death,  hence,  they  are  deep-seated  for 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON   PHYSIOLOGY.         295 

protection.     For  the  same  reason  the  larger  veins  are 
deep-seated. 

56.  By  a  process  called  endosmosis  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  passes  through  the  tissues  of  the  lungs. 

57.  The  lymphatics  gather  up  materials  that  may 
still  be  of  benefit  to  the  blood.  The  lacteals  carry 
nutrition  from  the  intestines  to  the  thoracic  duct. 

58.  By  observing  the  manner  of  the  flow.  The 
arteries  throw  out  the  blood  by  jets  at  each  beat  of  the 
heart,  while  the  veins  bleed  regularly. 

59.  The  animal  functions  are  sensation  and  voli- 
tion. The  vegetative  functions,  which  are  common  to 
both  animals  and  vegetables,  are  digestion,  assimila- 
tion, absorption,  secretion,  excretion,  growth,  respira- 
tion, and  generation. 

60.  1st.  It  disturbs  the  circulation.  2nd.  It  re- 
stricts the  action  of  the  stomach  and  impairs  digestion. 
3rd.     It  prevents  proper  and  sufficient  respiration. 

61.  The  respiratory  and  vocal  organs  are  the  larynx, 
the  trachea,  the  bronchi,  and  the  lungs. 

62.  The  immediate  object  of  respiration  is  the  puri- 
fication of  the  blood ;  the  ultimate  object  is  the  produc- 
tion of  heat,  motion  and  nervous  energy. 

63.  The  volume  of  air  inhaled  in  an  ordinary  in- 
spiration is  about  one  pint,  the  quantity  expelled,  a 
little  less  than  one  pint. 

64.  The  tones  of  different  voices  are  modified  by  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  vocal  apparatus.  A  large  larynx 
usually  gives  a  deep-toned  voice,  a  smaller  one,  a  thin- 
toned  or  high-pitched  voice. 


29Q       ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSIOLOGr. 

65.  Upon  the  capacity  of  the  chest,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  muscles  used  in  vocalization,  and  the  ex- 
tent of  vibration  of  the  vocal  cords. 

66.  No.  If  they  were  completely  emptied  the  air 
cells  would  collapse,  and  the  blood  then  in  the  lungs 
would  not  be  purified. 

67.  Consumption,  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  lung  fever, 
asthma,  etc.  By  having  the  room  ventilated  and 
warmed,  and  teaching  the  children  to  sit,  stand,  and 
walk  erect,  and  breathe  deeply  and  vigorously. 

68.  The  larynx  grows  larger,  and  the  vocal  cords 
longer  and  coarser,  thus  deepening  the  tones  and  low- 
ering the  pitch. 

69.  Plenty  of  pure  air  properly  breathed,  sunlight, 
and  frequent  bodily  exercise. 

70.  A  cold  frequently  arises  from  a  change  in  cloth- 
ing, putting  on  a  thinner  garment,  or  sitting  in  a  cool 
place,  or  a  draft  when  heated.  The  skin  becomes 
chilled  and  the  perspiration  checked.  The  pores  are 
closed  and  the  blood  is  driven  to  the  lungs  for  purifi- 
cation. Oppression  of  the  lungs  ensues,  breathing 
becomes  difficult  and  the  extra  mucus  is  thrown 
off  by  coughing.  From  this  condition  fever,  head- 
ache, pneumonia,  or  pleurisy  is  developed. 

71.  Congestion  is  an  excessive  accumulation  of 
blood  in  any  part  of  the  body.  It  is  indicated  by  an 
unusual  redness  in  the  parts  affected. 

72.  Pure  blood  is  obtained  only  by  a  healthy  action 
of  the  respiratory  organs,  which  in  turn  depends  upon 
a  constant  and  sufficient  supply  of  pure  air. 


ANSV/ERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   PHYSIOLOGY.         297 

73.  The  carbonic  acid  is  retained  in  the  blood  ;  the 
brain  works  sluggishly;  the  muscles  become  inac- 
tive ;  the  heart  acts  imperfectly  ;  the  secretions  are 
deteriorated;  the  food  is  not  properly  assimilated; 
and  the  whole  body  becomes  weak. 

74.  About  eighteen  per  minute.  By  training  and 
habit  the  number  may  be  much  diminished. 

75.  The  cerebrospinal  system,  consisting  of  the 
brain,  the  spinal  cord,  and  the  nerves  given  off  by 
them  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  the  sympathetic 
system^  composed  of  nerves  and  ganglia,  mainly  dis- 
tributed to  the  viscera  of  the  body. 

76.  (a)  The  nervous  system  is  composed  of  two 
kinds  of  matter,  —  the  gray  and  the  white.  The  gray 
consists  of  small,  ashen-colored  cells,  forming  a  pulp- 
like substance ;  the  white  is  composed  of  glistening, 
white  fibers,  averaging  about  -g-oViyOf  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter. (6)  The  gray  cells  act  as  generators  of  nervous 
force,  while  the  white  fibers  serve  as  conductors  of  this 
nervous  force,  having  a  velocity  of  about  100  feet  per 
second. 

77.  The  brain,  the  seat  of  the  mind,  is  the  great 
volume  of  nervous  tissue  lodged  within  the  skull ;  it 
consists  of  two  parts  :  — the  cerebrum,  or  brain  proper, 
and  the  cerebellum,  or  "  little  brain."  The  cerebrum 
lies  in  the  front  and  upper  part  of  the  skull,  the  cere- 
bellum, in  the  lower  and  back  part.  The  whole  floats 
securely  in  a  bed  of  liquid  surrounded  by  three  mem- 
branes,—  i\iQpia  mater  and  the  cZi^-a  mater  and  the 
arachnoid. 


298         ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS   ON   PHYSIOLOGY. 

78.  The  spinal  cord,  or  "  marrow,"  is  a  cylindrical 
mass  of  soft  nervous  tissue,  which  occupies  the  tunnel 
fitted  for  it  in  the  spinal  column.  It  is  composed  of  the 
same  substances  as  the  brain  ;  but  here  the  white  mat- 
ter surrounds  the  gray,  instead  of  being  encompassed 
by  it.  The  importance  of  the  spinal  cord  is  apparent 
from  the  extreme  care  taken  to  protect  it  from  exter- 
nal injury. 

79.  In  the  mind.  If  the  "  funny  bone  "  behind  the 
elbow  receives  a  blow,  the  effect  is  at  once  sent  to  the 
brain,  which  refers  the  shock  to  the  ends  of  the  nerve 
in  the  third  and  fourth  fingers,  where  the  pain  will 
seem  to  be. 

80.  1.  Excitement.  2.  Muscular  weakness.  3.  Men- 
tal weakness. 

81.  The  nerves  cross  from  the  brain  to  the  opposite 
side  of  the  body,  while  the  facial  nerves  come  from 
the  side  of  the  brain  affected. 

82.  Disagreeable  odors  and  unpleasant  sights  pro- 
duce nausea  ;  the  savory  odor  of  cooking  food  and  the 
peeling  of  a  lemon  make  the  mouth  water  ;  while  the 
rasping  sound  heard  in  filing  a  saw  produces  in  some 
persons  the  utmost  irritability. 

83.  The  cerebrum  is  the  instrument  through  which 
the  powers  of  memory,  reason,  and  judgment  mani- 
fest themselves.  The  cerebellum  presides  over  the 
muscular  movements  of  the  body. 

84.  The  nerves  of  special  sense  are  the  auditory, 
optic,  and  olfactory  nerves.  They  differ  from  other 
nerves   in   being  neither   sensitive   nor  motor,   their 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   PHYSIOLOGY.         299 

office  being  simply  to  convey  the  sense  of  hearing,  see- 
inor,  and  sraellino^. 

85.  The  opium  habit,  the  use  of  alcohol,  tobacco, 
and  the  excessive  use  of  tea  and  coffee. 

86.  Each  faculty  of  mind  should  receive  its  due 
share  of  cultivation  and  exercise. 

87.  (a)  The  reflex  action  of  the  spinal  cord  is  the 
involuntary  action  of  certain  muscles  independent  of 
the  agency  of  the  will.  An  impression  made  on  the 
surface  of  the  skin,  is  conveyed  to  the  cord,  which 
reflects  back  the  motor  impulse  to  the  muscles  so  as  to 
excite  them  to  action.  (6)  Examples  are  numerous: 
nearly  every  act  of  our  daily  routine  is  an  illustra- 
tion—  walking,  eating,  standing  erect,  (c)  By  the 
reflex  action  of  the  cord  we  are  protected  from  a  thou- 
sand perils.  We  involuntarily  throw  up  our  hands  as 
a  shield  from  danger,  we  instinctively  wink  to  protect 
the  eye,  and  upon  seizing  a  heated  substance,  we  in- 
stantly drop  it  before  the  command  could  come  from 
the  brain. 

88.  The  globe  of  the  eye  consists  of  three  concen- 
tric layers  —  the  sclerolica ,  v^nih.  the  cornea  in  front; 
the  choroidea^  with  the  iris  in  front;  and  the  retina^ 
which  is  internal.  These  compose  most  of  the  solid 
part  of  the  eyeball,  which  is  a  hollow  sphere  filled  with 
three  semi-fluid  substances — the  aqueous  humor,  the 
crystalline  lens,  and  the  vitreous  humor. 

89.  The  convexity  of  the  lens  is  changed  by  means 
of  ciliary  muscles.  The 'lens  is  made  more  convex  for 
near  objects  and  less  convex  for  those  more  distant. 


300        ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSIOLOGY. 

90.  (a)  The  sour y  as  certain  acids;  the  sweet,  as 
sirup  and  sugar ;  the  bitter,  as  quinine ;  and  the  salt,  as 
common  salt,  (b)  The  margin  and  the  tip  of  the 
tongue. 

91.  The  sense  of  touch  is  most  acute  on  the  palmar 
surface  of  the  fingers.  If  two  needles  one-twen- 
tieth of  an  inch  apart  are  pressed  against  the  end 
of  the  finger  two  impressions  are  felt.  No  where  else 
on  the  body  will  this  occur  when  the  needles  are  so 
near  together. 

92.  The  skin  aids  in  keeping  the  tissues  and  organs 
in  their  places,  and  protects  the  delicate  nerves,  lym- 
phatics and  blood  vessels  found  beneath  it. 

93.  It  regulates  the  temperature  of  the  body.  When 
exercise  warms  the  body  the  perspiration  is  exuded 
upon  the  skin  and  its  evaporation  reduces  the  tempera- 
ture and  keeps  the  system  from  being  overheated. 

94.  When  the  confined  air  is  warm  and  dry  it  ab- 
sorbs too  much  of  the  moisture  from  the  lungs  and 
skin,  and  produces  a  dry  and  feverish  condition  of  the 
system. 

95.  All  garments  should  be  as  light  as  is  consistent 
with  the  warmth  and  comfort  of  the  wearer.  Two  or 
three  thicknesses  of  flannel  is  warmer  than  double 
the  weight  of  cotton  or  linen ;  and  in  a  climate  subject 
to  sudden  and  extreme  changes,  flannel  is  preferable 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

96.  Continued  loss  of  sleep  produces  debility  of  the 
nervous  system,  nervous  excitability,  disturbed  breath- 
ing, palpitation  of  the  heart,  and  dyspepsia;  while 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   PHYSIOLOGY.         301 

insanity,  particularly  in  those  engaged  in  absorbing 
mental  labor,  frequently  follows  as  the  final  punish- 
ment for  disregarding  Nature's  laws. 

97.  The  skin  becomes  covered  with  a  mixture  of  oil, 
dust,  etc.,  which  if  permitted  to  remain  interferes 
with  the  excretory  powers  of  the  skin.  In  addition 
to  removing  this  accumulation,  water,  if  moderately 
cool,  throws  the  blood  back  upon  the  internal  organs, 
quickens  the  action  of  the  heart  and  communicates  the 
stimulus  to  the  Wihole  system ;  reaction  sets  in,  and  a 
return  of  the  blood  to  the  surface  invigorates  the  vital 
powers  to  an  extent  unknown  by  him  who  never  in- 
dulged the  luxury. 


QUESTIOI^S    ON   ZOOLOGY. 

1.  Explain  the  terms  biology ^  zoology,  and  natural 
history. 

2.  How  does  the  nutrition  of  plants  differ  from  that 
of  animals  ? 

3.  Give  a  comprehensive  definition  of  animals 

4.  Name   and  define  the  three  great  physiological 
functions. 

5.  Name  some  of  the  most   celebrated  naturalists 
who  have  devoted  much  attention  to  zoology. 

6.  Show  in  what  manner  we  are  dependent  upon  the 
animal  creation. 

7.  How  is  mankind  benefited  by  a  knowledge  of  the 
habits  of  animals  ? 

8.  (a)  What  are  fossils  ?     (b)  In  what  way  do  they 
aid  the  geologist  ? 

9.  How  is  paleontology  dependent  upon  zoology? 

10.  Name  the  systems  of   organs  found   in   those 
animals  exhibiting  the  highest  order  of  structure. 

11.  Define  the  terms  absorption  and  exhalation. 

12.  State  what  is  meant  by  a  cell  in  animal  struc- 
ture. 

302 


QUESTIONS    ON   ZOOLOGY.  303 

13.  Upon  what  is  the  study  of  zoology  chiefly 
based  ? 

14.  State  the  general  plan  of  classification  of  the 
animal  kingdom  by  naming  the  groups  beginning  with 
the  highest  division. 

15.  According  to  modern  naturalists,  what  princi- 
ples determine  the  classification  of  animals  into  classes, 
orders,  families,  etc.  ? 

IG.  Upon  what  principle  is  all  scientific  classification 
of  animals  based  ? 

17.  Name  the  six  subkingdoms  into  which  the  ani- 
mal kingdom  is  commonly  divided. 

18.  AYhat  animals  constitute  the  Vertebrates? 

19.  Name  the  five  classes  composing  the  Vertebrata. 

20.  How  do  the  bones  of  vertebrates  differ  from 
shells  of  mollusks? 

21.  In  what  respect  do  the  teeth  differ  from  bone? 

22.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Mammalia? 

23.  Name  the  orders  of  the  Mammalia,  and  after 
each  give  an  example. 

21:.  In  what  consists  the  superiority  of  the  frame  of 
man  over  that  of  other  animals  ? 

25.  "Why  are  monkeys  sometimes  classed  as 
Pedimana  ? 

26.  State  the  anatomical  distinctions  between  man 
and  the  monkey. 

27.  Explain  the  meaning  of  complete  and  double 
circulation  as  applied  to  mammals. 

28.  How  can  you  prove  that  cartilage  is  the  basis 
of  all  the  bones  ? 


304  QUESTIONS    ON   ZOOLOGY. 

29.  Write  the  dental  formula  of  man. 

30.  What  is  meant  by  "facial  angle?  "  How  does 
man  compare  in  facial  angle  with  some  of  the  lower 
orders  ? 

31.  Name  the  three  families  of  the  Quadrumana, 
and  state  which  most  resembles  man. 

32.  Can  the  Quadrumana  be  trained  to  be  of  any 
service  to  man  ?     Give  your  reasons. 

33.  State  to  what  families  the  following  monkeys 
belong:  Mandrill,  Spider  Monkey,  Aye  Aye,  Gorilla, 
Chimprnzee. 

34.  What  are  the  prominent  characteristics  of  the 
Carnivora  ? 

35.  Into  what  families  are  the  Carnivora  divided? 

36.  Classify  the  Carnivora  according  to  their  means 
of  locomotion,  and  give  examples. 

37.  How  do  the  senses  of  the  Carnivora  compare 
with  those  of  other  animals  ?     Why  this  provision  ? 

38.  What  is  the  typical  family  of  the  Carnivora? 
Why? 

39.  Describe  the  digestion  of  the  Kuminantia. 

40.  Name  the  more  important  families  of  the  Un- 
gulata,  distinguishing  those  which  are  artiodactyl  from 
those  termed  perissodactyl. 

41.  Name  ten  animals  termed  ruminants. 

42.  State  resemblances  and  differences  between  the 
three  species  of  the  camelidae? 

43.  What  fossil  animals  are  included  in  the  Probos- 
cidea  ? 


QUESTIONS   ON   ZOOLOGY.  305 

44.  Describe  and  name  the  uses  of  the  elephant's 
trunk. 

45.  Name  the  families  of  the  Cetacea,  and   state 
from  which  whalebone  and  sperm  are  obtained. 

46.  To  what  order  do  bats  belong? 

47.  What  peculiar  habits  distinguish  the  bats? 

48.  Name  some  of  the  most  important  insectivora. 

49.  Describe  the  dentition  of  the  rodents. 

50.  Classify  the  Rodentia  according  to  families,  and 
give  at  least  one  example  of  each. 

51.  Which  of  the  rodents  is  the  most  valuable  to 
man? 

52.  State  two  characteristics  of  the  Edentata. 

53.  What  is  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  Mar- 
sujnalia  ? 

54.  For  what  are  the  Mammalia  of  Australia  re- 
markable ? 

55.  What  structural  phenomena  are  exhibited  in  the 
Platypus? 

56.  Name  the  orders  of  birds,  with  an  example  of 
each. 

57.  State   the  modifications  in  the  form  of  birds 
which  adapt  them  for  flight. 

58.  How  is   the   bird's   plumage    rendered   water- 
proof ? 

59.  How   do   the   bones  of  birds    differ  from  the 
bones  of  mammals  ? 

60.  Describe  the  respiration  of  birds. 

61.  Explain  the  perching  apparatus  of  birds. 

62.  Describe  the  digestive  apparatus  of  birds. 

20 


306  QUESTIONS    ON    ZOOLOGY. 

63.  (a)  What  temperature  is  required  for  the 
hatching  of  eggs?  (b)  How  is  the  chick  aided  in  eS' 
caping  from  the  shell  ? 

64.  Explain  the  terms,  granivorous,  carnivorous, 
gregarious,  omnivorous,  ruminants. 

65.  Give  the  orders  of  reptiles  with  an  example  of 
each? 

66.  How  does  the  digestive  apparatus  of  reptiles 
differ  from  that  of  mammals  and  birds? 

67.  Describe  the  circulatory  system  of  reptiles. 

68.  What  is  the  structural  characteristic  of  the 
thoracic  cavity  of  reptiles? 

69.  Compare  the  special  senses  of  reptiles  with  those 
of  the  higher  orders. 

70.  Name  five  extinct  orders  of  the  Rcptilia. 

71.  Compare  the  heart  of  a  serpent  with  that  of  a 
fish. 

72.  Explain  how  serpents  are  capable  of  swallowing 
animals  larger  than  themselves. 

73.  How  is  the  poison  of  a  venomous  snake  com- 
municated to  the  object  bitten  ? 

74.  Where  are  alligators  and  crocodiles  respectively 
found? 

75.  Show  the  propriety  of  applying  the  term  "  am- 
phibians "  to  the  Batrachia. 

76.  Name  the  orders  of  the  Batrachia. 

77.  In  what  way  is  the  toad  helpful  to  the  gardaner? 

78.  Compare  a  fish  with  a  land  vertebrate  in  respect 
to  respiration,  locomotion,  digestion. 

79.  Name  and  locate  the   fins  of  a  fish,  and  state 


QUESTIONS   ON   ZOOLOGY.  307 

which  correspond  to  the  anterior  and  posterior  limbs 
of  vertebrates. 

80.  Into  what  four  classes  are  fishes  divided  accord- 
ing to  Agassiz  ?     Give  examples. 

81.  "What  enables  the  flying  fish  to  "  fly  ?  " 

82.  Name  the  subkingdoms  which  form  the  Inverte- 
brates. 

83.  Name  the  classes  of  Articulata  with  examples. 

84.  Give  some  of  the  most  prominent  structural 
characteristics  of  the  Articulates. 

85 .  How  are  insects  distinguished  from  other  Articu- 
lates ? 

86.  How  do  insects  breathe? 

87.  Describe  the  sting  of  an  insect,  and  state  how  it 
differs  from  an  '*  ovipositor." 

88.  Trace  a  particle  of  food  in  the  digestive  organs 
of  an  insect  by  naming  the  organs  through  which  it 
passes  to  the  intestine. 

80.  Describe  the  metamorphosis  of  insects. 

90.  Name  and  define  the  seven  orders  of  insects,  and 
give  two  examples  of  each. 

91.  Are  young  flies  smaller  than  old  flies? 

92.  What  orders  belong  to  the  Arachnidaf 

93.  Give  the  characteristics  of  the  arachnids. 

94.  Describe  the  Crustacea  as  a  class. 

95.  What  remarkable  restorative  power  over  lost 
limbs  is  possessed  by  crustaceans  ? 

96.  Explain  the  molting  of  a  crustacean. 

97.  Name  the  orders  of  Crustacea  according  to  the 
most  general  authority,  and  give  examples  of  each. 


308  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   ZOOLOGY. 

98.  State  the  different  methods  by  which  worms 
multiply. 

99.  How  does  the  earth-worm  benefit  the  soil? 

100.  (a)  Explain  how  the  tape-worm  is  nourished. 
(b)  How  it  grows,  (c)  How  it  is  developed  in  the 
human  system. 

101.  How  do  Mollusks  differ  from  the  higher 
branches  ? 

102.  Describe  the  circulatory  system  of  iSIollusks. 

103.  Name  and  briefly  describe  the  commonly  rec- 
ognized classes  of  Mollusca. 

104.  What  is  the  structure  of  the  Radiata? 

105.  Describe  the  digestion  of  the  Asteroids. 

106.  What  is  the  simplest  form  of  animal  which  has 
been  discovered? 

107.  Classify  the  following  animals  by  naming  the 
Subkingdom,  Class,  Oixler,  imd  Family  to  which  they 
severally  belong:  Orang-outang,  Jaguar,  Otter,  Goat, 
Zebra,  Mole,  Armadillo,  Swallow,  River  Tortoise, 
Frog,  Salmon,  Butterfly,  Locust,  Scorpion,  Hair- 
snake,  Slug,  Oyster,  Madrepore,  Jelly-fish,  Deer, 
Sperm  Whale,  Rat,  Sparrow,  Hawk,  Quail,  Pelican, 
Alligator,  Katydid,  Cuttle-fish,  Sea  Urchin. 


ANSWERS  TO    QUESTIONS  ON  ZOOLOGY. 

1.  Biology   {bios,  life;  and  logos,  discourse)  is  the 
study  of  living  objects  of  all  kinds.     It  includes  the 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON   ZOOLOGY.  309 

sciences  of  Botany  and  Zoology.  Zoology  (zoon,  ani- 
mal; and  logos,  discourse)  treats  of  animals.  The 
term  Natural  History,  formerly  applied  to  the  study 
of  all  natural  objects,  is  now  limited  to  Zoology. 

2.  Plants  live  upon  purely  dead  or  inorganic  sub- 
stances, as  water,  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  converting 
these  into  organic  substances ;  as  starch,  cellulose, 
sugar,  etc.  Animals  have  no  power  of  living  on  in- 
organic substances;  they  require  rea di/-made  orgamic 
compounds,  which  plants  furnish. 

3.  Animals  are  living  beings,  nourished  wholly  by 
organic  food,  and  which  have  sensation  and  the  power 
of  voluntary  motion,  consuming  oxygen  and  giving 
off  carbonic  acid. 

4.  1.  Functions  of  Nutrition,  those  by  which  an 
animal  is  able  to  live,  grow  and  maintain  its  existence 
as  an  individual.  2.  Functions  of  Beproduction,  those 
by  which  the  perpetuation  of  the  species  is  insured. 
3.  Functions  of  Relation,  those  by  means  of  which 
external  objects  are  brought  into  relation  with  the 
organism,  and  by  which  it  in  turn  reacts  upon  the 
outer  world. 

5.  Aristotle,  Linneas,  Cuvier,  Buffon,  and  Agassiz. 

6.  First,  a  great  portion  of  our  food  is  derived  from 
the  animals  of  the  forest,  field  and  waters.  Second, 
all  our  most  valuable  articles  of  apparel  we  get  from 
this  source.  Third,  dyes,  varnishes,  glues,  ivory, 
bone,  and  a  thousand  other  articles  employed  in  the 
arts  we  take  from  the  animal  world. 


310     ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  ZOOLOGY. 

7.  Zoology  teaches  mankind  what  animals  are  useful 
to  him,  and  what  ones  are  harmful.  It  teaches  us  how 
to  protect  those  which  may  be  of  use,  and  how  to  de- 
stroy those  which  do  us  harm. 

8.  (a)  The  remains  of  ancient  organic  bodies  dis- 
covered in  the  earth,  (b)  Fossils  aid  the  geologist  in 
tracing  out  the  different  rock  formations,  and  finding 
the  coal  and  other  materials  essential  to  supply  the 
wants  of  civilized  man. 

9.  Fossil  remains  of  animals  can  be  understood  only 
when  studied  by  the  aid  of  facts  and  principles  of 
zoology. 

10.  Respiratory,  digestive,  absorbent,  circulatory, 
secretory,  excretory,  motory,  reproductive  and  ner- 
vous systems. 

11.  Absorption  is  the  act  by  which  organisms  imbibe 
into  their  tissues  the  fluids  which  surround  them. 
Exhalation  is  the  act  of  sending  forth  fluids  in  the  form 
of  vapor  through  the  external  and  internal  surfaces  of 
the  animal. 

12.  A  cell  is  the  ultimate  structural  element  of  the 
animal  composition.  It  is  a  minute  vesicle  filled  with 
a  viscid  liquid  named  protoplasm  ;  i.e.,  the  first  to  form. 
Within  the  vesicle  there  is  a  central  particle  termed  the 
nucleus,  and  within  this,  there  is,  in  many  cases,  a  still 
smaller  particle  called  nucleolus. 

13.  Upon  the  classification  of  animals  according  to 
their  relations  and  afiinities. 

14.  The  first  division  is  into  Subkingdoms  or 
Branches;  2nd.  Classes;  3rd.  Orders;  4th.  Families; 
5th.  Genera;   6th.  Species. 


ANS^VERS   TO    QUESTIONS   ON   ZOOLOGY.  311 

15.  Subkingdoms  are  characterized  by  plan  of  struc- 
ture; classes,  by  the  manner  in  which  the  plan  is  exe- 
cuted; orders,  by  the  complication  of  structure; 
families,  by  form,  as  determined  by  structure  ;  genera, 
by  details  of  execution  in  special  parts;  species,  by 
the  relation  of  individuals  to  one  another,  and  by  the 
proportion  of  their  parts. 

16.  Upon  structure  and  upon  form  as  determined 
by  structure. 

17.  1.  Vertebrata.  2.  Articulata.  3.  Mollusca. 
4.  Echinodermata.     5.  Coelenterata.     6.  Protozoa. 

18.  All  animals  which  have  an  internal  jointed  skel- 
eton, and  a  brain  and  spinal  cord  along  the  dorsal  side. 

19.  Mammalia,  Aves,  Reptilia,  Amphibia,  Pisces. 

20.  The  bones  are  living  and  vascular  animal  tis- 
sues, greying  and  changing  by  internal  additions  and 
modifications.  Shells  grow  only  by  additions  to  and 
modifications  of  the  circumference. 

21.  The  teeth  are  in  part  composed  of  bony  mate- 
rial called  cement,  but  their  principal  substances  are 
dentine  and  enamel;  enamel  being  harder  than  any 
other  tissue  of  the  body,  having  but  a  trace  of  animal 
tissue,  the  teeth  are  far  more  durable  than  the  bones. 

22.  The  Mammalia  are  warm-blooded,  air-breathing 
vertebrates,  which  bring  forth  living  young,  and  nour- 
ish them  with  milk.  Their  skin  is  usually  covered 
with  hair,  fur  or  wool.  Their  lungs  are  separated  by  a 
diaphragm  from  the  abdominal  cavity.  The  heart  has 
four  cavities;  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  double 
and  complete. 


312         ans^\t:rs  to  questions  on  zoology. 

23.  Bimana^  man;  Quadrumana,  monkey;  C«r- 
nivoray  lion;  TJngulatay  horse;  Proboscidean  ele- 
phant; Sirenia^  dugong ;  Hyracoidea,  daman; 
Cetacea,  whale;  Chiroptera,  hat;  Insectivora,  mole; 
Rodeiitia^heiiYQV',  Edentata ^  anteater ;  Marsupialiay 
opossum;  Monotremata ^  duckbill. 

24.  The  framework  of  man  is  superior  to  that  of 
the  animals  in  its  adaptability  for  the  greatest  variety 
of  movements. 

25.  Because  of  their  power  of  opposing  the  great 
toe  to  the  other  toes,  making  the  hind  feet  become 
hands. 

26.  Monkeys  may  be  distinguished  from  man  ana- 
tomically by  the  spinal  opening  in  the  cranium  being 
in  the  posterior  third  of  the  base ;  by  the  single  curve 
of  the  vertebral  column  ;  by  the  shortness  of  the  thumb 
which  does  not  reach  the  base  of  the  index  finger ;  by 
the  long  and  narrow  pelvis ;  by  the  obtuse  angle  of  the 
foot  with  the  leg;  and  by  the  disproportionate  length 
of  the  arms,  which  in  most  species,  reach  to  the  knee. 

27.  The  circulation  in  mammals  is  complete  because 
all  the  blood  circulates  through  the  lungs  before  going 
through  the  body  ;  and  it  is  said  to  be  double  becaupe 
the  blood  passes  through  two  sets  of  capilliary  vessels, 
one  set  belonging  to  the  lungs,  the  other  set  to  the 
body. 

28.  This  may  be  shown  by  placing  a  bone  in  weak 
muriatic  acid  for  a  few  days,  when  the  mineral  sub- 
stance will  be  dissolved,  and  the  cartilage  having  the 
same  form  and  size  as  the  bone  will  remain. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  ZOOLOGY.      313 

2—2  1—1  2—2 

29.  Incisors, ;    Canine, ;  Pre-molars, . 

2-2  1-1  2-2 

Molars,^  =  32. 
3-3 

30.  The  '<  facial  angle  "  is  formed  by  the  intersec- 
tion of  two  lines  projected  in  the  following  manner: 
the  first  extends  from  the  lower  opening  of  the  ear  to 
the  base  of  the  nose ;  the  second  starting  from  the 
most  prominent  part  of  the  forehead,  intersects  the 
first  at  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  upper  jaw. 
In  the  White  race  this  angle  varies  from  75°  to  95°; 
in  the  ape   it  is  40° ;  in  the  dog,  20°. 

31.  The  three  families  of  the  quadrumana  are  the 
Simiida3,  the  Cebidge,  and  theLemuridee.  The  Simiidse 
resembles  man  most. 

32.  None  have  ever  been  trained  to  render  any- 
useful  service,  and  such  training  is  probably  impossi- 
ble from  their  disposition,  being  selfish,  crafty, 
thievish,  and  malicious. 

33.  The  Mandrill,  to  the  Simiidce ;  the  Spider 
Monkey,  to  the  Cebid®  ;  the  Aye  Aye,  to  the  Lemuri- 
dse  ;  the  Gorilla  and  the  Chimpanzee,  to  the  Simiidse. 

34.  1st.  They  feed  wholly  or  mainly  on  flesh.  2nd. 
They  have  long,  sharp  teeth,  fitted  for  cutting  and 
tearing  rather  than  grinding.  3rd.  The  stomach  is 
simple  and  the  intestines  relatively  short,  perfectly 
adapted  to  their  easily  digestible  food.  4th.  Their 
feet  are  provided  with  toes,  which  are  often  armed 
with  sharp  claws.  5th.  In  most  cases  the  Carnivora 
are  without  clavicles. 


314  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIOJvS   ON  ZOOLOGY. 

35.  Felidce^  as  the  lion,  cat ;  Viverridoe^  civet,  ich- 
neumon ;  Hyenidoe,  hyena;  Canidcey  dog,  wolf; 
J/ws^e/uZce,  weasel,  otter;  t^mtZce,  bear  ;  Procyonidce, 
raccoon;  Otariidce,  eared  seal,  sea  bear;  Phocidcey 
common  seal;  i?osmamZce,  walrus. 

36.  Digitigrades,  those  which  walk  on  the  toes 
without  touching  the  heel  to  the  ground ;  as  the  cat, 
tiger;  Plantigrades,  those  which  in  walking  place  the 
sole  of  the  foot  flat  on  the  ground;  as  the  bear,  rac- 
coon ;  Pennigrades,  those  which  progress  by  means  of 
fin-like  paddles;  as  the  seal  and  walrus. 

37.  Since  the  carnivora  live  almost  entirely  by  prey 
which  they  must  capture,  their  senses  are  more  acute 
than  those  of  any  other  order. 

38.  The  FelidiB,  because  they  exhibit  the  peculiar 
characteristics  of  the  order  more  than  any  other 
family. 

39.  In  the  Euminantia  the  stomach  is  composed  of 
four  compartments.  The  food  is  swallowed  as  the 
animal  grazes,  and  is  passed  directly  into  the  paunch 
or  first  stomach  ;  thence  into  the  reticulum  or  second 
stomach,  where  it  is  moistened  and  formed  into 
pellets,  which  afterward  ascend  through  the  oesophagus 
to  the  mouth  to  be  chewed  while  the  animal  rests. 
The  food,  now  in  the  form  of  chewed  cuds,  is  again 
swallowed,  passing  directly  into  the  leaflet  or  third 
stomach,  sometimes  called  many  plies,  on  account  of 
its  numerous  folds.  From  this  it  passes  to  the  fourth 
stomach  or  caillette,  which  is  the  true  organ  of  dio;es- 

'  DO 

tion. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  ZOOLOGY.     3l5 

40.  The  artiodactyl  Ungulata  are :  Camelidse, 
GiraffidtB,  Bovidae,  Antilocapridpe,  Cervidse,  Hippo- 
potamidffi,  Suidse,  Dicotylidoe;  the  perissodactyl  Un- 
gulata Sive:   Equidge,  Rhinocerotidse,  Tapiradse. 

41.  The  giraffe,  bison,  buffalo,  goat,  chamois,  ox, 
deer,  moose,  sheep,  gazelle. 

42.  The  camel,  dromedary,  and  llama  resemble  one 
another  in  having  no  horns,  being  provided  with  two 
toes  and  cushioned  feet,  and  being  all  ruminants. 
They  differ  in  their  dorsal  structure  and  habitat,  the 
camel  having  one  hump,  the  dromedary,  two  and  the 
llama  none.  The  camel  is  adapted  to  cold  climates, 
the  dromedary  to  hot  climates,  and  the  llama,  by  rea- 
son of  its  hooked  toes,  is  adapted  to  the  rugged  moun- 
tains of  the  Andes. 

43.  The  mastodon  and  the  dinotheriwyi. 

44.  The  elephant's  proboscis  or  trunk  is  a  long  cylin- 
drical organ  composed  of  several  thousand  muscles,  and 
endowed  at  its  terminus  with  the  most  dehcate  sensi- 
bility. The  trunk  is  remarkable  for  its  power  and 
agility.  It  is  the  organ  of  touch,  smell,  prehension, 
and  defense. 

45.  The  families  of  the  Cetacea  are  delphinidoe^  hal- 
aenidcE,  and physeteridce.  Whalebone  is  obtained  from 
the  upper  jaw  of  the  balaenidm.  Sperm  is  obtained 
from  cranial  cavities  in  the  physeteridce. 

46.  To  the  Chiroptera. 

47.  The  bats  fly  during  the  night,  concealing  them- 
selves in  daylight  in  caves,  hollow  trees,  and  dark 
places,  hanging   by  the  hooks  or  nails  of   their  hind 


316  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   ZOOLOGY. 

feet.  Their  large  ears  and  broad  wings  possess  such 
a  delicate  sensibility  that  they  are  enabled  to  fly 
quickly  and  safely  through  the  most  complicated 
passages. 

48.  The  mole,  shrew,  hedgehog,  kabung. 

49.  In  each  jaw  they  have  two  chisel-shaped  inci- 
sors, between  which  and  the  molars  there  is  a  space 
without  teeth,  canines  being  wanting.  The  incisors  are 
long,  slightly  curved  and  deeply  rooted.  The  edges 
are  kept  sharp  by  friction  and  growth.  The  molars 
are  usually  ridged  transversely,  and  the  jaws  have 
a  backward  and  forward  motion  as  required  in 
gnawing. 

50.  Mm-idoe,  rats  and  mice;  Geomi/idce, gophers; 
Castoridce,  beaver;  Sciitridm^  squirrels;  Hystricidce, 
porcupine  ;  Caviidce,  Guinea-pig  ;  Leporidoe,  hares  and 
rabbits. 

51.  The  beaver  on  account  of  its  fur. 

52.  They  are  all  toothless  and  painfully  deliberate  in 
their  movements. 

53.  The  Marsupialia  at  birth  are  extremely  small, 
and  are  immediately  received  into  a  pocket  or  pouch, 
formed  by  folds  of  the  skin  of  the  mother's  abdomen. 
Here  they  are  nourished  till  they  are  able  to  take  care 
of  themselves. 

54.  In  belonging,  with  a  few  exceptions,  to  the  order 
of  Marsupialia. 

55.  It  has  the  form  of  an  otter  with  many  of  his 
habits,  and  the  bill  of  a  duck  and  webbed  feet. 


ANSAVEKS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  ZOOLOGY.  317 

66. 

Passeres,  sparrows.  Herodiones,  herons. 

PiCAEi^,  woodpeckers.       Alectorides,  rails. 
PsiTTACi,  parrots.  Lamellirostres,  geese. 

Eaptores,  vultures.  Stegaxopodes,  pelicans. 

CoLmiBiE,  cloves.  Longipenxes,  gulls. 

Gallix.e,  turkeys.  Pygopodes,  auks. 

Beevipennies,  ostriches.     Sphexisci,  penguins. 
LiMicoL^,  snipes. 

57.  The  breast  bone  is  greatly  enlarged  to  furnish 
support  for  the  muscles  which  move  the  wings  ;  while 
the  fore  limbs  below  the  elbow  are  more  or  less  consol- 
idated to  give  firmness  in  striking  the  air  in  flight. 

58.  By  the  oil  with  which  the  feathers  are  dressed, 
and  which  is  furnished  by  a  gland  situated  on  the  tail. 

59.  In  being  much  lighter.  The  marrow  found  in 
the  bones  of  mammals  is  replaced  by  air  in  the  bones 
of  birds. 

60.  Eespiration  in  birds  is  most  complete.  Not  only 
the  lungs  perform  this  function,  but  the  bones  and 
feathers  aid  in  the  act  of  breathing.  It  is  claimed  that 
if  the  windpipe  be  tied  a  bird  will  breathe  through  a 
broken  bone. 

61.  A  large  muscle  extends  down  the  thigh-bone, 
terminating  in  a  tendon,  which  passes  in  front  of  the 
knee,  and  continuing  downward  and  backward,  passes 
behind  the  heel-bone;  here  it  divides,  sending  branches 
to  all  the  toes.  When  the  bird  stands  erect  the  toes 
are  extended,  but  as  it  crouches,  the  limbs  being  bent, 
the  muscle   and  tendon  are  shortened,  and  in  the  act 


318     ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  ZOOLOGY. 

the  toes  are  flexed  and  grasp  the  perch.  This  flexion 
is  seen  in  the  stepping  of  fowls,  the  flexing  of  the  toes 
being  involuntary. 

62.  The  stomach  is  composed  of  three  parts, — the 
crojJ,  which  is  an  enlargement  of  the  guUet,  a  membran- 
eous stomach  lined  with  numerous  glands  which  furnish 
juices  to  moisten  the  food,  and  the  gizzard,  in  which 
the  food  is  finally  digested. 

63.  (a)  104°  Fahr.  {b)  By  a  horny  point  at  the 
exti'cmity  of  the  bill  by  which  the  shell  is  pierced. 

64.  Granivorous,  living  upon  grains  or  other  seeds. 
Carnivorous,  living  upon  animal  food.  Gregarious, 
living  in  numbers  or  herds.  Omnivorous,  feeding 
indiscriminately  on  all  kinds  of  food.  Ruminants, 
animals  which  chew  the  cud. 

65.  Testudinata ,  tuviXQQ ;  Z^ oWca to ,  alligator ;  Lac- 
ei'tilia,   lizards;    Ophidia,  snakes. 

66.  It  is  shorter  in  proportion  than  in  warm  blooded 
vertebrates.  The  transition  from  the  oesophagus  to 
the  stomach  is  by  a  pouch-like  dilatation.  The  small 
intestines  have  but  few  coils,  and  the  large  intestines 
are  short.     Dio-estion  is  slugo-ish. 

67.  The  blood  of  reptiles  is  much  cooler  than  in 
animals  or  birds.  The  heart  has  only  three  cavities 
instead  of  four,  two  auricles  and  one  ventricle.  The 
arterial  blood  from  the  lungs  goes  into  the  left  auricle, 
and  the  venous  blood  from  all  parts  of  the  body  into 
the  right  auricle  ;  both  are  poured  into  the  single  ven- 
tricle, thus  mixing  the  pure  and  impure  blood;  hence 
the  sluggishness  of  these  animals. 


ANS^VERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  ZOOLOGY  319 

68.  Reptiles  having  no  diapliragm,  there  is  no  divi- 
sion between  the  cavities  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen, 
and  the  lungs  are  not  connected  with  air-sacs  placed  in 
various  parts  of  the  body. 

69.  The  eyes  of  reptiles  differ  but  little  from  those 
of  birds;  the  hearing  is  less  complete  than  it  is  in 
either  mammals  or  birds  ;  the  sense  of  smell  is  but 
little  developed  ;  while  the  sense  of  touch  is  almost 
wanting. 

70.  Ichthyopterygia,  Sauropterygia,  Pterosauria^ 
Anomodontia ,  Deinosauria. 

71.  The  heart  of  a  serpent  has  three  cavities,  —  two 
auricles  and  one  ventricle;  while  a  fish  has  but  two 
cavities, — one  auricle  and  one  ventricle,  containing 
only  impure  blood. 

72.  The  lower  jaw  articulates  with  the  skull  by 
means  of  a  quadrate  bone,  and  this  in  turn  is  movably 
jointed  to  the  cranium.  The  two  halves  of  the  lower 
jaw  are  loosely  united  by  ligaments  and  muscles.  By 
reason  of  this  peculiar  arrangement  serpents  have  the 
power  of  opening  the  mouth  to  an  astonishing  extent. 

73.  The  upper  jaw  contains  a  pair  of  long,  curved 
fangs,  which,  when  not  in  use,  are  pointed  backward, 
and  concealed  in  a  fold  of  the  gum.  Each  fang  is 
perforated  by  a  fine  tube,  connecting  with  the  duct  of 
the  "poison-gland,"  located  under  and  behind  the 
eyes.  When  the  snake  strikes  at  any  object,  the  poi- 
son is  forced  through  the  fang  into  the  Avound,  partly 
by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  glands,  and 
partly  by  the  action  of  the  jaw. 


320     ANSWEKS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  ZOOLOGY. 

74.  The  alligator  in  the  New  World,  the  crocodile 
in  the  Old  World. 

75.  The  term  "  amphibians  "  is  applied  to  the  Ba- 
trachia  on  account  of  their  "  double  life," — the  tadpole 
stage  passed  in  water  during  which  they  breathe  by 
gills  like  a  fish,  and  a  mature  stage  passed  in  air,  dur- 
ing which  they  breathe  by  lungs. 

76.  Anoura^  as  frogs  and  toads;  Urodela,  as  sala- 
manders and  newts;  Amphipneuslra ^  as  siredons; 
Ai^oda,  as  the  blind  worm. 

77.  The  toad  is  an  enormous  eater;  his  daintiest 
food  is  the  insect  tribe  that  infest  the  gardens.  A  half 
dozen  toads  in  a  large  garden  will  devour  all  the  in- 
sects that  destroy  the  young  plants. 

78.  While  respiration  in  the  land  vertebrates  is  per- 
formed by  means  of  lungs,  in  fishes  it  is  effected  by 
means  of  gills ;  the  limbs  of  fish  corresponding  to  the 
locomotive  members  of  land  vertebrates  are  but  little 
developed.  Owing  to  the  simplicity  of  the  intestinal 
canal,  digestion  in  fishes  is  very  rapid. 

79.  The  fins  of  fish  are  termed  loectovals,  corre- 
sponding to  the  fore  or  anterior  limbs  of  the  higher 
vertebrates;  ventrals,  corresponding  to  the  posterior 
limbs,  dorsal,  on  the  back ;  anal,  beneath  the  tail ;  and 
caudal,  at  the  end  of  the  tail. 

80.  Into  Salachians  (cartilaginous  skeleton),  as 
Sharks,  Rays;  Ganoids  (enameled),  as  Gar-pikes ; 
Sturgeons  ;  Telliosts  (perfect  bone),  as  Perch,  Salmon, 
Marsipobranchii  (pouch  gills),  as  Lampreys,  Lan- 
celet. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  ZOOLOGY.     321 

81.  The  so-called  flying  of  this  fish  is  duo  to  an 
excessive  development  of  the  pectoral  fins,  by  which  it 
is  enabled  to  sustain  itself  in  air  for  only  a  few 
seconds. 

82.  The  ArticukUa ;  the  MoUusca;  the  Echinoder- 
mata;  the  Coelentei^ata;  the  Protozoa. 

83.  /?i6^ecto ,  as  insects  ;  Myriapoda ,  a.^  centipedes; 
Arachnida,  as  spiders;  Crustacea^  as  lobsters;  An- 
nelida, as  worms. 

84.  The  bodies  of  Articulates  consist  of  a  series  of 
transversely  jointed  rings,  more  or  less  movable,  com- 
posed of  a  substance  termed  chitine.  The  external 
parts  are  usually  hard,  and  constitute  the  only  skele- 
ton the  animal  may  be  said  to  have.  The  limbs,  when 
present,  are  like  the  body  —  composed  of  jointed  rings. 
Each  distinct  segment  of  the  body  possesses  an  inde- 
pendent nerve  center,  though  these  are  all  connected, 
both  with  each  other  and  with  the  outer  integument. 

85.  In  the  true  insects  the  three  divisions  of  the 
body,  the  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen,  are  always  dis- 
tinct from  one  another;  there  are  never  more  than 
thi'ee  pairs  of  legs  in  the  adult,  and  these  are  borne 
upon  the  thorax ;  the  abdomen  has  no  locomotive  ap- 
pendages. 

86.  Breathing  in  insects  is  effected  by  means  of  air- 
tubes  which  branch  throughout  the  animal,  and  which 
receive  the  air  through  air-holes,  arranged  along  the 
side  or  posterior  part  of  the  body.  The  biood  is 
aerated  by  absorbing  air  through  delicate  membranes 
of  the  tubes. 

21 


^22  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON   ZOOLOGY. 

87.  The  sting  is  a  kind  of  hollow  lancet  connected 
with  an  internal  sac  of  poison,  which  the  insect  injects 
into  the  wounds  it  inflicts  when  enraged.  The  oviposi- 
tor, or  piercer,  is  a  jointed  tube  used  for  conducting 
eggs  into  holes  where  they  are  left  to  be  hatched. 

88.  The  food  in  some  insects  is  chewed  by  means  of 
mandibles  by  a  horizontal  motion  ;  in  others  it  is  mere- 
ly sucked  in,  and  passes  into  a  more  or  less  folded 
cavity,  termed  the  crojJ,  from  which  it  goes  into  a 
second  muscular  cavity  or  gizzard.  The  gizzard  is 
adapted  for  crushing  the  food,  by  having,  in  many 
cases,  teeth-like  plates  of  chitine.  From  this  the  food 
passes  into  the  true  digestive  organ,  termed  the  chylific 
stomach,  and  thence  to  the  intestine. 

89.  The  metamorphoses  comprise  three  stages.  The 
moth  in  passing  from  the  egg  state  becomes  a  larva. 
If  legs  are  present,  the  larva  is  a  caterpillar ;  if  absent, 
a  grub  or  maggot.  In  this  state  the  larva  is  a  voracious 
eater,  and  grows  astonishingly,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
common  tobacco  worm .  At  growth  it  usually  rolls  itself 
into  an  apparently  lifeless  oval  or  conical  body  called  a 
puj)a  or  chrysalis.  After  a  time,  varying  in  length  in 
different  species,  it  sheds  its  pupa  covering  and  comes 
forth  an  imago,  or  perfect  insect. 

90.  1.  Hymenoptera  (membrane-winged),  bees, 
wasps. 

2.  Lepidoptera  ( scaly-Manged ) ,  butterflies,  moths. 

3.  Diptera  (two-winged),  flics,  mosquitoes. 

4.  Coleoptera  (sheath-winged),  beetles,  weevils. 

5.  Hemiptera  (half-winged),  harvest-flies,  bugs. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  ZOOLOGY.      323 

6.  Ot'tlioptera   (straight-winged),   locusts,  crickets. 

7.  Neuroptera  (nerve-winged),  dragon-flies,  ant- 
lion. 

91.  They  are  not.  Flies  come  forth  in  the  imago 
full  grown.  The  small  flies  belong  to  a  different 
species. 

92.  Aranece,  as  the  spider;  Pedipalpi,  as  the 
scorpion;  Acarina,  as  the  mite,  cattle  tick. 

93.  The  Arachnids  have  the  head  and  thorax  closely 
united ;  four  pairs  of  legs ;  they  are  without  antennas 
or  wings;  and,  in  general,  undergo  no  metamorphosis, 
but  molt  their  skin  six  times  before  coming  to  ma- 
turity. 

94.  The  Cmstacea  (hard  covering)  are  covered 
with  a  crust  or  shell.  The  body  consists  of  segments, 
most  of  which,  in  the  higher  orders,  are  united  into 
one  piece,  called  the  cephalo-thorax.  Most  crustaceans 
live  in  water,  and  breathe  by  means  of  gills  or 
hranchice. 

95.  All  Crustaceans  have  the  power  of  repairing 
injuries  to  themselves.  Thus,  if  a  leg  or  other  ap- 
pendage is  broken  off  another  soon  grows  in  its 
place. 

96.  As  the  Crustacean  grows  it  becomes  too  large 
for  its  shell.  A  rent  is  formed  through  the  back  and 
the  animal  slips  out,  leaving  a  shell  as  much  like  itself 
as  when  it  encased  the  living  creature. 

97.  Decapodciy  ten-footed,  as  lobsters,  crabs,  and 
shrimp  ;  Tetr'adecapoda,  fourteen-footed,  as  wood-lice 


324  ANS^^'ERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON   ZOOLOGY. 

and  sand-fleas;   Entomoslraca,   insect-like,    as   horse- 
shoe crabs  and  barnacles. 

98.  Most  worms  multiply  by  eggs;  some  by  self- 
division,  called  germination  or  fission  ;  while  a  few  are 
viviparous. 

99.  The  earth  or  angle  worm  eats  the  organic  mat- 
ter found  in  the  earth.  The  rejected  worm  casts 
together  with  the  burrowing  and  working  of  the  worms 
over  the  soil  often  converts  barren  wastes  into  pro- 
ductive land. 

100.  (rt)  The  tape  worm  is  without  digestive  organs 
or  alimentary  canal,  hence  all  nourishment  is  absorbed 
through  the  walls  of  its  body.  (5)  The  worm  grows 
by  increase  in  the  number  of  joints  near  the  head,  the 
older  ones,  containing  eggs,  ripening  and  falling  away, 
(c)  The  detatched  joints  escaping  to  the  world  scatter 
the  eggs,  which  enter  the  system  of  other  animals, 
usually  some  omnivorous  feeder  like  the  hog.  Here 
only  the  eggs  will  hatch.  The  embryo  pierces  the 
flesh  and  becomes  hydatids.  The  meat  of  such  tainted 
hoo-s,  containino;,  the  larvcB  of  these  is  eaten  raw  or 
insufficiently  cooked,  and  develop  in  the  human  system 
the  tape  worm. 

101.  MoUusks  are  neither  jointed  nor  radiated  in 
their  internal  structure,  but  are  composed  of  yielding 
tissues  of  great  concractile  power  enveloped  by  a  mus- 
cular skin  called  the  mantle.  In  most  cases  the  mol- 
lusk  is  protected  by  a  hard  shell. 

102.  The  circulatory  system   of  the  higher  orders 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   ZOOLOGY.  325 

of  the  Mollusca  consists  of  a  distinct  heart,  having  an 
auricle  and  a  ventricle,  arteries  and  veins.  The  auricle 
receives  the  colorless  aerated  blood  from  the  gills,  while 
the  ventricle  drives  it  through  the  body. 

103.  1st.  The  CepJialopoda  have  muscular  append- 
ages or  arms  around  the  head,  two  stout  horny  jaws ; 
two  large  eyes ;  and  the  body  is  sometimes  covered 
by  a  shell.  2nd.  The  Gasteropoda  have  the  abdomen 
provided  with  a  single  foot  by  which  all  movements 
are  effected.  While  some  are  naked,  most  live  in  an 
univalve  shell.  3rd.  The  Acephala  or  LamelUbran- 
diiata  have  no  apparent  head,  and  live  in  a  shell  com- 
posed of  two  valves.  4th.  The  Tiinicata  or  Ascidiaris 
have  a  soft,  elastic  covering  instead  of  a  shell.  5th. 
The  Brachiopoda  (arm-footed)  have  two  ciliated  arms, 
the  shell  composed  of  two  valves,  one  above  and  one 
below  opening  by  a  system  of  muscles  instead  of 
hinge  ligaments  as  in  the  oyster.  6th.  The  Polyzoa 
grow  in  clusters,  hence  the  name  (many  animals). 
They  resemble  plants  in  their  general  appearance  so 
much  as  to  be  sometimes  called  mass-animals. 

104.  The  Radiata  diverge  in  all  directions  from  a 
central  axis, — they  are  without  ends  or  sides.  The 
lateral  symmetry  observed  in  the  higher  forms  is  here 
replaced  by  a  circular  symmetry  from  the  center, 
similar  to  the  growth  of  plants,  from  which  resem- 
blance the  radiates  are  often  called  plant-animals. 

105.  The  Asteroids  force  their  prey  into  a  cavity 
on  the  under  side  by  means  of  tentacles,  when  the 


326  ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  ZOOLOGY. 

stomach  by  a  peristaltic  movement  protrudes  and  en- 
velopes the  food,  which  by  the  action  of  the  fluids 
secreted  by  the  animal,  goes  through  the  process  of 
digestion. 

106.  The  Bathyhius,  belonging  to  the   Monera,    a 
structureless  living  albuminous  jelly. 

107.  Consult    Tenxy's  Elements    of    Zoology     or 
Steel's  Fourteen  Weeks  in  Zoology. 


QUESTIONS  ON  PHrLOSOPHY. 

1.  Define  Natural  Philosophy.     Physics. 

2.  Give  the  general  properties  of  matter. 

3.  What  are  the  specific  properties  of  matter  ? 

4.  How  does  a  molecule  differ  from  an  atom? 

5.  Name  the  great  forces  in  nature. 

6.  State  and  illustrate  the  difference  between  cohe- 
sion and  adiiesion. 

7.  In  what  three  forms  does  matter  exist? 

8.  What  is  the  difference  between  annealing  and 
welding? 

9.  State  Newton's  Laws  of  Motion. 

10.  What  is  the  absolute  unit  of  force? 

11.  Give  the  law  of  reflected  motion. 

12 .  What  are  the  two  laws  of  gravitation  ? 

13.  («)  How  does  weight  decrease  above  and  below 
the  earth's  surface.     (6)  Where  is  it  nothing? 

■  14.  Write  the  three  formulas  for  falling  bodies,  ex- 
plaining the  characters  you  employ. 

15.  How  does  the  initial  velocity  of  a  body  pro- 
jected upward  compare  with  the  final  velocity  of  a  fall- 
ing body  ? 

327 


328  QUESTIONS    ON   PHILOSOPHY. 

16.  What  is  meant  by  the  random  of  a  projectile? 

17.  How  far  will  a  body  fall  in  ten  seconds? 

18.  Give  the  laws  of  the  pendulum. 

19.  (a)  What  is  the  length  of  a  second's  pendulum 
in  the  United  States?     (6)  Where  would  it  be  longer? 

20.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  a  10  horse-power  en- 
gine. 

21.  What  are  the  three  general  laws  of  machines? 

22.  Describe  the  three  classes  of  levers. 

23.  Give  formulas  for  the  solution  of  lever  problems. 

24.  With  a  lever  of  the  first  class  in  which  the 
distance  between  the  power  and  fulcrum  is  4  feet,  and 
the  distance  from  the  weight  to  the  fulcrum  is  2  feet, 
how  great  a  weight  can  be  balanced  by  a  man  weighing 
150  pounds  ? 

25.  Write  a  formula  for  the  wheel  and  axle. 

26.  State  the  law  of  wheel-work. 

27.  What  is  a  pulley ?     How  many  kinds? 

28.  How  do  you  find  the  weight  balanced  by  a  given 
power  with  a  system  of  pulleys  having  a  continuous 
rope  ? 

29.  Give  rules  for  determining  the  advantage  gained 
by  using  an  inclined  plane. 

30.  How  is  the  advantage  gained  by  the  use  of  a 
screw  estimated? 

31.  What  means  are  employed  for  diminishing  the 
friction  between  two  surfaces  ? 

32.  State  the  law  of  liquid  pressure. 

33.  How  is  the  pressure  of  a  hj'drostatic  presa 
found? 


QUESTIONS   ON  PHILOSOPHT.  329 

34.  Give  a  rule  for  finding  the  liquid  pressure  on  the 
bottom  of  any  vessel. 

35.  How  may  the  pressure  of  water  against  the  side 
of  a  vessel  be  found? 

36.  Upon  what  property  of  liquids  is  the  spirit  level 
constructed  ? 

37.  State  clearly  what  is  meant  by  specific  gravity? 

38.  How  would  you  find  the  sp.  gr.  of  a  piece  of 
iron  ? 

39.  Give  a  rule  for  finding  sp.  gr.  of  a  body  lighter 
than  water. 

40.  How  is  the  weight  of  any  substance  determined 
from  its  specific  gravity  ? 

41.  (a)  What  is  the  pressure  of  the  air  at  sea  level? 
(5)  How  high  a  column  of  mercury  does  this  pressure 
sustain?  (c)  What  height  does  it  raise  water  in  a 
pump  ? 

42.  Describe  and  state  the  uses  of  the  barometer. 

43.  State  the  velocity  of  sound  in  air  and  in  water. 

44.  AVith  what  velocity  will  water  flow  from  an 
opening  64.32  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  water? 
Give  the  work,  and  state  the  law  upon  which  this  is 
based. 

45.  How  would  you  determine  the  volume  of  water 
discharged  by  a  river  in  a  given  time? 

46.  Name  the  different  kinds  of  water-wheels  in  use, 
and  state  how  much  of  the  water  power  is  made  avail- 
able by  each . 

47.  What  is  Mariotte's  law  governing  the  compress- 
ibility of  air? 


330  QUESTIONS   ON   PHILOSOPHY. 

48.  Explain  the  action  of  the  lifting  pump. 

49.  How  is  the  earth's  magnetism  shown  by  polar- 
izing a  bar  thrust  in  the  ground? 

50.  State  the  law  of  electric  action. 

51.  What  is  the  velocity  of  light? 

52.  How  does  the  intensity  of  light  and  heat  vary? 

53.  Give  three  laws  for  the  refraction  of  light. 

54.  Upon  what  principles  are  sounds  transmitted  by 
the  telephone? 

55.  Nameand  define  the  methods  of  diffusion  of  heat. 

56.  Upon  what  facts  does  the  action  of  the  ther- 
mometer depend  ? 

57.  How  much  steam  will  a  cubic  foot  of  water 
make? 

58.  Give  the  law  of  thermodynamics. 

59.  How  is  the  vibrating  movement  of  the  piston  in 
a  steam-engine  produced  ? 

60.  How  do  images  appear  in  convex  mirrors? 

61.  Name  the  different  kinds  of  lenses.  Into  what 
two  classes  may  they  be  divided  ? 

62.  Explain  how  objects  are  perceived  by  the 
organs  of  the  eye. 

63.  A,  who  can  row  6  miles  an  hour  in  still  water, 
heads  his  boat  straight  across  a  stream  flowing  4 
miles  an  hour:  how  far  and  with  what  velocity  does 
his  boat  move  to  reach  the  opposite  shore,  if  the 
stream  is  4  miles  wide? 

64.  A  body  weighs  50  lbs.  at  the  earth's  surface; 
what  is  its  weight  500  miles  below  the  surface? 

65.  What  would  be  the  difference  in  weight  of  a 


QUESTIONS    ON   PHILOSOPHY.  •  331 

100  lb.  ball  1000  miles  above  the  earth's  surface  and 
1000  miles  below  the  surface? 

66.  How  far  above  and  below  the  earth's  surface 
should  a  Troy  pound  be  taken  to  weigh  3  ounces? 

67.  How  far  will  a  two-pound  weight  fall  during 
(a)  the  fourth  second  of  its  descent?  (b)  What  will 
be  the  entire  distance  fallen?  (c)  With  what  velocity 
will  it  strike  the  earth? 

68.  A  body  is  thrown  directly  upward  with  a  veloc- 
ity of  112.56  feet;  (a)  What  velocity  will  it  have  at 
the  end  of  the  fourth  second?  (b)  In  what  direction 
is  it  moving? 

69.  What  will  be  the  time  of  vibration  of  a  pendu- 
lum 30  inches  long,  and  how .  many  vibrations  will  it 
make  in  a  minute  ? 

70.  How  long  must  a  pendulum  be  to  beat  once  in 
2V3  seconds  ? 

71.  A  pendulum  5  feet  long  makes  400  vibrations 
durino;  a  certain  time;  how  many  vibrations  will  it 
make  in  the  same  time  after  the  pendulum  rod  has 
been  expanded  V-t  of  an  inch  ? 

72.  What  is  the  horse-power  of  an  engine  that  can 
raise  2000  lbs.  4800  feet  in  3  minutes? 

73.  How  long  will  it  take  a  10  horse-power  engine 
to  raise  50  tons  200  feet? 

74.  How  far  can  a  20  horse-power  engine  raise  80 
tons  in  40  seconds? 

75.  AVhat  weight  can  be  balanced  by  a  lever  having 
the  following  elements:  power  arm  7V2  feet,  weight 
arm  8  inches,  power  100  lbs.? 


332  QUESTIONS    ON   PHILOSOPHY. 

76.  Required  the  power  to  balance  a  weight  of  150 
lbs.,  and  the  class  of  lever,  if  the  power  arm  is  3 
feet  and  the  weight  arm  4  feet. 

77.  Two  men,  A  and  B  carry  a  barrel  of  flour 
(weight  210  lbs.)  suspended  from  an  8-foot  pole  be- 
tween them,  but  as  B  is  only  "/8  as  strong  as  A,  it  is 
required  to  know  how  far  from  each  the  weight  should 
be  placed. 

78.  Where  should  be  the  fulcrum  of  a  5-foot  lever 
so  that  a  weight  of  40  lbs.  at  one  end  shall  be  balanced 
by  8  lbs.  at  the  other? 

79.  What  is  the  class  and  length  of  lever  and  dis- 
tance from  power  to  fulcrum  of  that  lever  with  which 
a  power  of  1  kilogram  will  balance  a  weight  of  4  kilo- 
grams placed  50  centimeters  from  the  fulcrum  ? 

80.  What  power  will  be  required  to  move  the  pilot- 
w^heel  of  a  boat  if  the  resistance  of  the  rudder  is 
80  lbs.  and  the  diameters  of  the  wheel  and  axle  are 
4  feet  and  8  inches  respectively? 

81.  A  weight  of  540  lbs.  is  balanced  by  60  lbs.  on 
a  wheel  12  feet  in  diameter;  what  is  the  diameter  and 
circumference  of  the  wheel's  axle? 

82.  How  much  power  Avill  be  required  to  draw  10 
gallons  (80  lbs.)  of  water  from  a  well  with  a  windlass 
12  inches  in  diameter  fitted  with  a  winch  20  inches 
long? 

83.  What  weight  can  be  balanced  by  a  system  of 
4  movable  and  5  fixed  pulleys,  the  poAver  being  100 
lbs.? 


QUESTIONS    ON    PHILOSOPHY.  333 

84.  In  a  system  of  pulleys  of  two  blocks,  each 
containing  4  sheaves,  the  friction  is  Ve  the  power; 
required  the  power  which  will  support  1200  lbs. 

85.  An  inclined  plane  has  a  base  of  12  feet  and  a 
height  of  3  feet.  What  force  acting  (a)  horizontally, 
that  is  parallel  to  the  base,  will  balance  a  weight  of 
3  tons?  (b)  What  force  will  be  required  if  the  force 
acts  parallel  to  the  plane? 

86.  A  screw  whose  threads  are  V4  of  an  inch  apart 
is  turned  by  a  lever  6  feet  long.  How  great  a  force 
will  be  exerted  by  a  power  of  25  lbs.,  applied  at  the 
end  of  the  lever,  allowing  200  lbs.  for  friction? 

87.  Find  the  pressure  on  the  base  of  a  cylindrical 
cistern  whose  diameter  is  5  feet,  the  water  being  6 
feet  deep. 

88.  A  dam  20  feet  high  and  100  feet  from  shore  to 
shore  is  filled  with  water ;  what  is  the  average  pressure  ? 

89.  What  is  the  total  liquid  pressure  on  the  sides 
and  bottom  of  a  prismatic  vessel  containing  2  cubic 
yards  of  water,  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  being  2  by 
3  feet? 

90.  What  is  the  pressure  on  the  bottom  of  a  pyra- 
midal vessel  filled  with  water,  the  base  being  3  by  4 
feet,  and  the  height  being  10  feet? 

91.  The  lever  (2nd  class)  of  a  hyarostatic  press  is 
8  feet  long,  the  piston  rod  is  one  foot  from  the  ful- 
crum; the  area  of  the  tube  is  V2  square  inch,  that  of 
the  cylinder  is  120  square  inches.  Find  the  weight 
that  may  be  raised  by  a  power  of  100  lbs. 


334  ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    PHILOSOPHY. 

92.  The  temj^erature  of  a  school-room,  as  shown 
by  a  Fahrenheit's  thermoneter,  is  68  deg.,  what  tem- 
perature would  be  indicated  by  a  Centigrade  thermome- 
ter?    By  Reaumer's  thermometer? 

93.  What  is  the  specific  gravity  of  a  piece  of  metal 
which  weighs  88.19  ounces  in  air,  and  when  placed 
in  a  vessel  even  full  of  water  displaces  1 1  ounces  of 
the  liquid  ? 

94.  A  16-ounce  ball  weighs  7  ounces  in  Avater,  but 
upon  being  transferred  to  another  liquid,  weighs  11 
ounces;  what  is  the  specific  gravity  of  the  second 
liquid? 

95.  Find  the  specific  gravitj^  of  a  piece  of  ice  from 
the  following  conditions:  a  lump  of  ice  weighing  8 
lbs.  is  tied  to  16  lbs.  of  lead.  In  water  the  lead 
alone  weighs  14.6  lbs.,  while  the  lead  and  ice  in  water 
weigh  13.712  lbs. 


AJS^SWERS     TO     QUESTIONS    ON    NATURAL, 
PHILOSOPHY. 

1.  Natural  Philosophy  is  the  science  which  treats  of 
all  those  phenomena  of  matter  in  which  there  is  no 
change  in  the  composition  of  the  body.  Physics  is 
only  another  tei-m  for  Natural  Philosophy. 

2.  Extension,  Impenetrability,  Weight,  Indestructi- 
bility, Inertia,  Mobility,  Divisibility,  Porosity,  Com- 
pressibility, Expansibility,  and  Elasticity. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    PHILOSOPHY.  335 

3.  Hardness,  Tenacity,  Brittleness,  Malleability, 
Ductility. 

4.  A  molecule  is  the  smallest  particle  of  matter  that 
can  exist  by  itself;  while  an  atona  is  the  smallest  parti- 
cle of  matter  that  can  enter  into  composition. 

5.  Internal  or  Molecular  Forces,  Attraction  of 
Gravitation,  Heat,  Light,  Electricity,  Magnetism,  Vi- 
tal Force. 

6.  Cohesion  is  the  force  which  holds  together  like 
molecules;  adhesion  is  the  force  which  holds  together 
unlike  molecules.  Cohesion  preserves  the  forms  of 
bodies,  as  the  parts  of  a  stone,  while  adhesion  holds 
the  crayon  marks  to  the  blackboard. 

7.  In  the  solid,  the  liquid,  and  the  gaseous  forms. 

8.  Annealing  is  the  process  of  rendering  metals, 
glass,  etc.,  soft  and  flexible  by  heating  and  gradually 
cooling.  The  process  of  welding  is  the  union  by  cohe- 
sion of  two  pieces  of  iron  or  platinum  by  heating  and 
hammering  them  together. 

9.  First  Law.  A  body  unaffected  by  any  exter- 
nal force  continues  in  its  state  of  rest  or  of  uniform 
motion  in  a  straight  line. 

Second  Law.  A  force  produces  the  same  effect 
whether  the  body  on  which  it  acts  is  at  rest  or  in  mo- 
tion, whether  it  acts  alone  or  with  other  forces. 

Third  Law.  Action  and  reaction  are  equal  and  in 
opposite  directions. 

10.  It  is  the  force,  which  acting  for  a  unit  of  time 
upon  a  unit  of  mass,  will  produce  a  unit  of  velocity. 


336  ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON   PHILOSOPHY. 

11.  The  angle  of  incidence  is  equal  to  the  angle  of 
reflection,  and  lies  in  the  same  plane. 

12.  1st.  Gravitation  varies  directly  as  the  mass. 
2nd.  Gravitation  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
distance  from  the  centers  of  gravity. 

13.  Above  the  surface  of  the  earth  weight  decreases 
as  the  square  of  the  distance  from  the  center  of  the 
earth  increases.  Below  the  surface  it  decreases  sim- 
ply as  the  distance  from  the  surface  toward  the  center 
increases.  At  the  center  of  the  earth  there  is  no 
weight,  because  the  influence  of  gravity  there  ceases. 

14.  V  =  velocity;  s  =  space  fallen  each  second; 
S  =  total  distance  fallen;  g  =  32.16  ;  t  =  time;  V  = 
gXt;   s  =  V2  g  (2t— 1)  ;    S  =  V2  g  Xt'^ 

15.  It  is  the  same  for  any  given  distance. 

16.  The  random  of  a  projectile  is  the  horizontal  dis- 
tance from  its  starting  point  to  where  it  strikes  the 
ground. 

17.  8  =  1/2  gXt^;  that  is  1/2  of  32.16x10^=1608 
feet. 

18.  1st  Law.  Vibrations  of  small  amplitude  are 
made  in  equal  times. 

2nd  Law.  The  times  of  vibrations  of  two  pendu- 
lums are  to  each  other  as  the  square  roots  of  their 
lengths. 

3rd  Law.  The  lengths  of  two  pendulums  are  di- 
rectly proportional  to  the  squares  of  their  times  of  vi- 
bration, or  inversely  proportional  to  the  squares  of 
the  number  of  their  vibrations  in  a  given  time. 

19.  (a)  39.1  inches,     (b)  Toward  the  Poles. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  PHILOSOPHY.         337 

20.  A  10  horse-power  engine  is  one  having  power  to 
do  10X33,000  foot-pounds  of  work  in  a  minute. 

21.  First.  What  is  gained  in  intensity  of  power  is 
lost  in  time,  velocity,  or  distance. 

Second.  The  power  multiplied  by  the  distance 
through  which  it  moves  equals  the  weight  multiplied 
by  the  distance  through  which  it  moves. 

Tliird.  The  power  multiplied  by  its  velocity  equals 
the  weight  multiplied  by  its  velocity. 

22.  In  a  lever  of  the  first  class  the  power  and 
weight  are  at  the  ends,  the  fulcrum  is  between  them. 

In  a  lever  of  the  second  class  the  poioer  and  fulcrum 
are  at  the  ends,  the  weight  is  between  them. 

In  a  lever  of  the  third  class  the  weight  and  fulcrum 
are  at  the  ends,  the  power  is  between  them. 

23.  P  (power)  :  W  (weight)  ::  WF  (weight arm)  : 
P  F  (power  arm). 

24.  P:  W::WF:  PF; 

150:  X::  2:  4;  whence  X=  300  pounds. 

25.  The  power :  Weight;:  the  radius,  diameter,  or 
circumference  of  the  axle:  the  Radius,  Diameter,  or 
Circumference  of  the  wheel. 

26.  The  continued  product  of  the  power  and  the 
radii  of  the  wheels  equals  the  continued  product  of 
the  weight  and  the  radii  of  the  axles. 

27.  A  pulley  is  a  wheel  usually  fixed  in  a  block,  and 
turning  on  its  axis  by  means  of  a  cord  running  in  a 
crroove  formed  on  the  edge  of  a  wheel.  There  are 
two  kinds  —  fixed  and  movable. 

22 


338         ANSWERS  TO   QUESTIONS    ON   PHILOSOPHY. 

28.  Multiply  the  power  by  the  number  of  folds  of 
the  rope  supporting  the  weight  attached  to  the  mova- 
ble block. 

29.  P  (power):  W  (weight)::  h  (height):  1 
(length).  This  rule  applies  only  when  the  power  acts 
parallel  to  the  plane.  If  the  power  acts  parallel  to  the 
base,  we  apply  this  formula:  P:  W::  h  (height): 
b  (base). 

30.  A  given  power  will  support  a  weight  as  many 
times  as  great  as  itself  as  the  circumference  described 
by  the  power  is  times  as  great  as  the  distance  between 
the  threads. 

31.  1st.  By  increasing  the  smoothness  between  the 
surfaces.  2nd.  By  placing  some  lubricant  between 
the  surfaces,  as  soap  and  black  lead  for  woods,  and  oil 
for  metals.  3rd.  By  making  the  surfaces  of  different 
material. 

32.  Liquids  under  the  pressure  of  gravity  only, 
press  equally  in  all  directions. 

33.  Multiply  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  piston  by 
the  quotient  obtained  by  dividing  the  area  of  the  cyl- 
inder by  the  area  of  the  piston. 

34.  Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  in  feet  by  the 
depth  of  the  water  in  feet,  and  this  product  by  62V2 
(the  number  of  pounds  in  a  cubic  foot  of  water). 

35.  Multiply  the  area  of  the  side  in  feet  by  one-half 
the  height  of  water  in  feet,  and  this  product  by 
62V2. 

36.  It  is  constructed  upon  the  property  of  liquids 
to  assume  a  horizontal  surface. 


ANSA\^RS   TO    QUESTIONS   ON   PHILOSOPHY.         339 

37.  The  specific  gravity  of  a  body  is  its  Aveight 
compared  witli  the  weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  an- 
other body  taken  as  the  standard. 

38.  Weigh  the  piece  of  iron  in  air  and  in  water; 
divide  its  weight  in  air  by  the  loss  it  sustains  by  weigh- 
ing it  in  water. 

39.  Attach  the  lighter  body  to  a  piece  of  metal 
heavy  enough  to  sink  it ;  weigh  the  combination  in  air 
and  in  water. 

Find  the  loss  of  weight  of  the  combined  mass  when 
weighed  in  water.  Weigh  the  heavy  body  in  air  and 
in  water,  and  find  the  loss.  From  the  loss  which  the 
combined  mass  sustains  in  water  subtract  the  loss 
which  the  heavy  body  alone  sustains  in  water;  the 
remainder  will  be  the  weight  of  water  equal  to  the 
bulk  of  the  lighter  body.  Divide  the  weight  of  the 
lighter  body  by  this  remainder. 

40.  Multiply  the  sp.  gr.  of  the  substance  by  62  V2  ; 
the  product  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  sub- 
stance. 

41.  (a)  15  pounds  per  square  inch.  (5)  It  sup- 
ports a  column  of  mercury  30  inches  high,  (c) 
Theoretically,  it  raises  water  34  feet:  practically 
about  28  feet. 

42.  The  barometer  consists  of  a  straight  glass  tube 
about  33  inches  long,  filled  with  mercury  and  inverted 
in  a  vessel  containing  mercury.  It  is  used  to  indicate 
changes  in  the  weather,  and  to  measure  the  heights  of 
mountains. 


340         ANSAVERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   PHILOSOPHY. 

43.  Sound  travels  in  air,  at  32°  Fahr.,  1,090  feet 
per  second;  in  wate^-,  about  4,700  feet  per  second. 

44.  64.32  feet  -^  16.08  =  4  ;  The  square  root  of  4 
is  2,  the  number  of  seconds;  32.16  X  2  =  64.32  ft., 
Ans.  The  law  upon  which  this  is  based  is:  The  veloc- 
ity of  a  stream  flowing  through  an  orifice  is  the  same 
as  that  acquired  by  a  body  falling  freely  from  a  height 
equal  to  the  depth  of  the  liquid. 

45.  Multiply  the  area  of  a  cross  section  of  the 
river's  bed  by  the  velocity  of  the  stream,  and  this 
product  by  the  time. 

46.  The  undershot  wneel,  using  about  25%  of  the 
water  power,  the  breast  wheel,  about  65  %,  the  over- 
shot wheel,  about  72  %,  and  the  turbine  wheel,  using 
from  80  to  85  %. 

47.  The  volume  of  space  which  air  occupies  is  in- 
versely as  the  pressure  upon  it. 

48.  The  lifting  pump  consists  of  a  hollow  cylinder, 
within  which  is  a  piston  working  air-tight.  At  the 
lower  end  of  both  piston  and  cylinder  is  a  valve  open- 
ing upward.  The  cylinder  is  attached  to  a  tube  or 
"suction  pipe"  communicating  with  the  water.  As 
the  piston  is  worked  the  air  below  it  is  gradually  re- 
moved. The  downward  pressure  in  the  pipe  being 
thus  removed,  the  pressure  of  the  air,  exerted  upon 
the  surface  of  the  liquid,  pushes  the  liquid  up  through 
the  suction  pipe  and  the  lower  valve  into  the  cylinder. 
When  the  piston  is  again  pressed  down,  the  lower 
valve  closes,  the  reaction  of  the  water  opens  the  piston 
valve,  the  piston  sinking  below  the   surface   of  the 


ANSW'ERS  TO   QUESTIONS   ON  PHILOSOPHY.         341 

water  in  the  cylinder.  When  next  the  piston  is  raised, 
its  valve  is  closed  by  the  weight  of  the  water,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  water  is  lifted  toward  the  spout  and 
thrown  out. 

49.  If  an  iron  bar  be  placed  in  the  earth  and  struck 
a  sharp  blow  upon  the  upper  end,  that  end  becomes 
polarized. 

50.  Two  bodies  charged  with  like  electricities  repel 
each  other;  two  bodies  charged  with  opposite  elec- 
tricities attract  each  other. 

61.  About  186,000  miles  per  second. 

52.  The  intensity  of  light  and  heat  varies  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  distance. 

53.  First.  Light  entering  a  medium  at  right  angles 
to  its  surface  is  not  refracted. 

Second.  Light  passing  obliquely  from  a  rarer  to  a 
denser  medium  is  refracted  toward  the  perpendicular. 

Third.  Light  passing  obliquely  from  a  denser  to  a 
rarer  medium  is  refracted  jT/'ow  the  perpendicular. 

54.  The  sounds  uttered  cause  air  waves  to  beat 
upon  the  diaphragm  and  cause  it  to  vibrate.  Each 
vibration  of  the  diaphragm  produces  an  electric  cur- 
rent in  the  wire.  These  currents  are  transmitted  to 
the  coil  of  the  connected  telephone,  and  there  produce 
in  the  diaphragm  of  the  connected  instrument  vibra- 
tions exactly  like  the  original  vibrations  produced  by 
the  voice  of  the  speaker. 

65.  Heat  is  diffused  in  three  ways:  Conduction, 
Convection,  and  Radiation.  Conduction  is  the  trans- 
fer of  heat  from  molecule  to  molecule.     Convection 


342         AXSWHES   TO   QUESnoyS   ON  PHTLOSOPHT. 

is  the  transfer  of  heat  by  circulation.  Eadiation  is  the 
transfer  of  heat  bv  waves  moring  in  straight  lines  in 
all  directions. 

56.  The  action  of  the  mercurial  thermometer  de- 
pends upon  the  facts  that  heat  expands  mercury  more 
than  it  does  glass,  and  that  when  two  substances  of  dif- 
ferent temperatures  are  brought  into  contact,  the 
warmer  one  will  gire  heat  to  the  colder  one  until  they 
have  a  common  temperature. 

o7.  About  1700  cubic  feet  of  steam. 

58.  When  heat  is  transformed  into  mechanical 
energy,  or  mechanical  energy  into  heat,  the  quantity 
of  heat  equals  the  quantity  of  mechanical  energy'. 

59.  In  a  double-acting  steam-engine,  the  steam  is 
admitted  by  means  of  sliding  valves,  to  the  cylinder 
alternately  above  and  below  the  piston. 

60.  In  convex  mirrors  the  images  are  virtual,  erect, 
and  smaller  than  their  objects. 

61.  The  Double-convex,  Plano-convex,  and  Concavo- 
convex,  or  meniscus,  are  thicker  in  the  middle  than 
at  the  edges:  while  the  Double-concave,  Plano-con- 
cave, and  Convex-concave,  or  diverging  meniscus,  are 
thinner  in  the  middle  than  at  the  edges. 

62.  Eays  of  light  entering  the  eye  from  an  object, 
are  refracted  by  the  cornea  and  crystaline  lens,  and 
made  to  converge  to  a  focus  at  the  back  of  the  eye, 
and  form  an  image  upon  the  retina.  This  image  pro- 
duces a  sensation  on  the  optic  nerve,  and  conveys,  in 
some  unknown  way,  to  the  mind,  a  perception  and 
knowledge  of  the  external  object. 


ANSA\'ERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   PHILOSOPHY.         343 

63.  (6  mi.)- +(4  mi.)-=52  sq.  mi. ;  V52  =  7.21 
+  mi.  velocity.  If  he  rowed  with  a  velocity  of  4  mi. 
an  horn-  he  would  drift  4  miles,  but  he  rows  6  miles  an 
hour,  and  therefore  drifts  |  or  |  of  4  miles,  or  2| 
miles.     (2|)2+  (4)2  =  23| ;  V23|.  =  4.8  +  miles. 

64.  The  weight  below  the  surface  :  the  weight  at 
the  surface  : :  the  distance  from  the  earth's  center  : 
the  distance  from  the  center  to  the  surface  ;  that  is 

10 :  W::  d:  D; 

X  lbs.;  50  lbs.  :  :3500  mi. :  4000  mi. 

Ans.  43.75  lbs. 

65.  iv:    W  ::  d  :D; 

x  :  100  : :  3000  :  4000.  Weight  75  lbs.  below 
the  earth's  surface. 

w:     W  ::  D-  :        d- ; 

X  :  100  : :  (4000)'^  :  (5000)^.  Weight  64  lbs. 
above  the  earth's  surface.     75  lbs.  —  64  lbs.  =  11  lbs., 


difference.     Ans. 

66. 

lu  :  W 
3  :  12 

::d:D; 

::x  :  4000. 

Ans. 

1000  mile 

s  from  the  earth's 

center. 

IV 

:    W:: 

D':  d'; 

3 

;  12  :  : 

(4000)2  :x\ 

I  12  X  16000000  =  V<J-i<^0^000  =  8*^00  miles  from 

■^=J 3 

the  center,  or  4000  miles  above  the  surface. 

67.  (a)  16.08  ft.X7  (twice  the  number  of  seconds 
less  one)=  112.56  ft.,  distance  fallen  during  the  4th 
second;   (b)   16.08X16  (the  square  of  the  number  of 


344        ANS"VVER8  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHIL080PHT. 

seconds)  =  257.28  ft.,  the  entire  distance  fallen;  (c) 
32.16  (gravity)  X4  =  128.64  ft.,  velocity  at  the  end 
of  the  4th  second. 

68.  112.56  ft.  (initial  velocity)  -^  32.16  (gravity) 
=  3|-  seconds  in  rising.  Since  it  rises  but  3|-  seconds, 
at  the  end  of  the  4th  second  it  has  been  falling  ^  sec- 
ond, and  has  a  velocity  of  32.16  X  |-  or  16.08  ft. 

69.  39.1  :  30  : :  12 :  t^,  or  t  =  .87  +  seconds.  Since 
the  pendulum  vibrates  once  in  .87  seconds,  it  will 
vibrate  as  many  times  in  one  minute,  or  60  seconds, 
as  60  -^  .87+  =  68.9+.     Ans. 

70.  39.1  inches  X  (2|)2  =  278+  inches. 

71.  The  length  of  the  given  pendulum  :  the  length 
of  the  pendulum  increased  by  ^  of  an  inch  :  :  the 
square  of  the  required  number  :  400^.  60  inches 
:  60.25  inches  : :  x"  :  400^.  Ans.  399.04+. 

-«     TT  2000  X  4800        ^„  f.         . 

72.  Horse  power  =  ggQ^Q  ^ — 3-  =  96.9.    Ans. 

73.  2000  X  50  X  200  =  20000000  minutes  ;    33000 

X  10  =  330000  foot  pounds ;  20000000  min.  --  330000 

=  6011  minutes.     Ans. 

_,      TT  Weight  X  distance  ^-^r    .  .  ,. 

74.  Horse  power  =  33000  x  time  in  minutes .-  W.  X  dis- 
tance =  33000  X  time  X  H.  P. ;  that  is,  (2000  X  80) 
X  sc  =  33000  X  I  [40  sec]  X  20.  160000  x  =  440000, 
and  a;,  or  the  distance,  =  2|  feet. 

75.  P:W::WF:PF; 

100  :  a;    :  :  8  in.  :  90  in.        Ans.   1125  lbs. 

76.  P:W    ::Wr:PF; 
X  :  150  : :  4  ft.  :  3  ft. 

Ans.  200  lbs.,  lever  of  3d  class. 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  PHILOSOPHY.        345 

77.  I  +  f  =  y,  strength  of  both  compared  with  A. 
210  -T-  y  =  112  lbs.  carried  by  A  ;  210  —  112  =  98 
lbs.  carried  by  B.  If  B  acts  as  fulcrum  and  A  as 
power,  we  have 

P  :    W   :  :  W  F  :  P  F  ; 
112  :  210  :  :  cc  ft.  :  8  feet. 
Performing  indicated  operation,  we  have  4^^^  feet  as 
the  distance  the  weight  is  from  B  ;  and  8  —  4^*3-  =  3ii 
feet  from  A. 

78.  Since  the  weight  is  five  times  as  great  as  the 
power,  the  power  arm  should  be  five  times  as  long  as 
the  weight  arm  ;  the  weight  arm  plus  5  times  the  weight 
arm,  or  6  times  the  weight  arm,  equals  60  inches,  or 
the  weight  arm  equals  10  inches  and  the  power  arm 
equals  50  inches. 

79.  The  lever  may  be  of  the  1st  or  2nd  class. 
Of  1st  class:     P:    W     ::    WF     :  P  F; 

1  kg.  :  4  kg.  :  :  50  cm.   :  x  cm. 
The  power  arm,  or  distance  from  fulcrum  to  power, 
is  200  cm.,  and  the  length  of  lever  is  200  cm.  +  50 
cm.  =  250  cm.     As  a  lever  of  the  2nd  class  the  whole 
length  would  be  200  cm. 

80.  P:  W::  d  (diam.  axle):  D  (diam.  wheel); 
x:   80::  8  inches  :  48  inches. 

Performing  operation,  x  equals  13|^;  but  since  the 
wheel  is  to.  be  movedy  the  power  must  be  anything 
greater  than  13^  lbs. 

81.  P:     W::  d:  D; 

60  :  540  : :  x  ft. :  12  ft.     Diam.  axle,  1^  ft. 
11  ft.  X  3.1416  =  4.1888  ft.,  circumference  of  axle. 


346         ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON  PHILOSOPHY. 

82.  P;  W::     d:  D; 

X  :  80:  :  12  :  2  X  20;  power  equals  24  lbs, 

83.  Since  the  number  of  fixed  pulleys  is  one  greater 
than  the  number  of  movable  pulleys,  the  number  of 
cords  is  one  greater  than  twice  the  number  of  mova- 
ble pulleys,  or  9  ;   and  100  lbs.  X  9  =  900  lbs.     Ans. 

84.  4X2=8,  number  of  cords. 

1200  Ib.^  8  =  150  lbs.;  150  lbs.— 25  lbs.  (deducted 
for  friction)  equals  125  lbs.     Ans. 

85.  (a)  P:    W  ::  h  (height)  :  b  (base)  ; 

X  :  6000  : :        3  ft.  :  12  ft.     Ans.   1500  lbs. 
(b)  (12ft.)'^=144sq.  ft. 

(Sfi.y=      9  sq.  ft.     144  +  9  =  153  ;  V'TSS 
=  12.3+  ft. 

P:    W::  h  (height):  1  (length); 
x:  6000::  3  ft:  12.3+  ft. 

Ans.  1463.4+. 

86.  6  X  12  X  2  X  3.1416  =452.3904  inches  circum- 
ference described  by  power. 

P :  W  : :  d  (distance  between  threads)  :  c  (circum. ) ; 
25:  a;   ::  ^  inch  :  452.3904  in. 

Performing  operation,  x  =  45239.04  lbs. ;  subtracting 
200  lbs.  for  friction,  we  have  45039.04  lbs.     Ans. 

87.  Area  of  the  base  equals  19.635  sq.  feet.  19.635 
X  6  X  62.5  lbs.  =  7363.12+  lbs.     Ans. 

88.  20  X  100  =  2000  sq.  ft.  2000  sq.  ft.  X  10  (half 
the  height)  =  20000  cu.  ft.  ;  62.5  lbs.  X  20000  = 
1250000  lbs.     Ans. 

89.  The  water  in  the  vessel  stands  (V  =  )  ^  f** 
deep.     The  sides  subjected  to  lateral  pressure  have  an 


ANS^VEKS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   PHILOSOPHY.         347 

area  of  [(2  +  2  +  3  +  3)  X  9]  90  square  feet.  90 
X  4|-  =  405,  number  of  cu.  feet  in  a  column  producing 
lateral  pressure.  There  are  (2X3X  9)  54  cubic  feet 
in  the  vertical  column.  405  +  54  =  459  ;  62|  lbs.  X 
459  =  28687^  lbs.     Ans. 

90.  3  X  4  X  10  =  120  cu.  ft.  62^  lbs.  X  120  = 
7500  lbs.     Ans. 

91.  The  piston  will  move  with  a  force  of  (8  X  100) 
800  lbs.  The  area  of  the  cylinder  being  240  times 
greater  than  that  of  the  piston,  the  weight  will  be  240 
times  800  lbs.,  or  192000  lbs.,  or  96  tons. 

92.  The  differences  between  the  freezing  and  boil- 
ing points  of  Fahrenheit's,  the  Centigrade,  and  Reau- 
mer's  thermometers  are  respectively  (212  —  32)  180°, 
100=  and  80° ;  hence,  1°  Fahr.  =  |  C.  and  |  R.  Sub- 
tracting 32°  from  68°,  we  have  36°  Fahr.  above  the 
freezing  point.  |  of  this  equals  20°  C,  and  |  of  it 
equals  16°  R. 

93.  88.19  ounces  -f-.  11  =  8.01  +  specific  gravity. 

94.  16  oz.  —  7  oz.  =  9  oz.  ;  16  oz.  —  11  oz.  =  5  oz. 
5  -^  9  =  |.     Ans. 

95.  Combined  weight  in  air,  24  lbs. 
Combined  weio-ht  in  water,                  13.712  lbs. 


Weight  of  water  displaced  by  ice  and  lead,  10.288  lbs. 
Weight  of  water  displaced  by  lead,  1.4      lbs. 

Weight  of  water  displaced  by  ice,  8.888  lbs. 

Specific  gravity  of  ice  (8  -=-  8.888)  =  .9+.     Ans. 


QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY  AND    PRACTICE    OF 
TEACHING. 

1.  Give  a  comprehensive  definition  of  education. 

2.  What  is  the  essential  process  of  education? 

3.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  ♦'  natural  order  of 
educating  the  faculties." 

4.  Show  the  difference  between  "Learning  and 
Education." 

5.  State  as  many  fundamental  educational  truths 
recognized  by  educators  as  you  can. 

6.  What  three  kinds  of  knowledge  should  the  teacher 
possess  ? 

7.  Into  what  three  general  classes  are  the  mental 
powers  commonly  divided?     Illustrate. 

8.  Define  the  following  terms  :  Perceptive  Facul- 
ties, Conceptive  Faculties,  Reflective  Faculties,  Intui- 
tion. 

9.  Explain  the  distinction  between  a  mental  power 
and  a  mental  faculty. 

10.  What  is  included  in  the  "  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Teaching?" 

11.  What  items  are  included  in  the  *'  History  of 
Education?" 

348 


QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE,    ETC.      349 

12.  Name  the  six  methods  of  instruction  commonly 
recognized  by  educators. 

13.  Explain  the  difference  between  mere  teaching 
and  training. 

1-4.  State  the  commonly  recognized  requisites  of  a 
successful  teacher. 

15.  What  is  meant  by  "  School  Government?  " 

16.  Is  it  true  that  good  teachers,  like  true  poets,  are 
born,  and  not  made  by  cultivation  ?  Give  your  reasons 
for  your  answer. 

17.  Explain  how  a  good  teacher  may  be  a  poor 
educator. 

18.  Enumerate  the  means  through  Avhich  the  percep- 
tives  are  cultivated.  With  which  is  the  teacher  most 
concerned  ? 

19.  What  training  should  the  reflective  powers  of 
children  under  15  years  of  age  receive? 

20.  Name  the  most  prominent  mental  qualities 
sought  in  the  cultivation  of  the  conceptive  faculty. 
Give  3'our  reasons. 

21.  What  course  should  a  teacher  pursue  during  the 
first  day  of  school  ? 

22.  What  items  should  be  included  in  a  teacher's 
contract? 

23.  Name  four  hygienic  conditions  which  should 
receive  daily  attention  by  the  teacher. 

24.  To  what  extent  should  a  child  of  average  mental 
power  be  trained  during  his  first  year  at  school? 

25.  Name  five  of  the  most  common  methods  in 
teachinsc  children  to  read. 


350     QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE,    ETC. 

26.  Explain  the  advantages  of  instruction  in  phonics. 

27.  Explain  the  Word  Method  of  teaching  children 
to  read. 

28.  Give  the  successive  steps  usually  taken  in  teach- 
ing the  Word  Method . 

29.  What  should  be  the  teacher's  purpose  in  teach- 
ing reading? 

30.  State  how  a  teacher  may  learn  his  pupils'  names 
during  the  first  day  of  school. 

31.  Show  whether  it  is  or  it  is  not  necessary  for 
teachers  of  the  primary  and  intermediate  grades  to 
acquaint  themselves  with  the  higher  branches. 

32.  What  item  should  be  daily  recorded  by  the 
teacher? 

33.  What  monthly  summary  is  required  to  be  re- 
ported by  the  teacher  ? 

34.  Enumerate  five  of  the  principal  objects  of  a 
recitation. 

35.  Why  should  physiology  and  hygiene  in  some 
form  be  taught  in  all  schools? 

36.  Name  one  or  more  studies  which  call  into  exer- 
cise the  different  faculties. 

37.  How  far  and  when  should  the  pupil  be  assisted 
in  the  preparation  of  his  lesson  ? 

38.  Of  what  advantages  is  a  daily  programme? 

39.  What  can  you  say  regarding  a  teacher's  tones 
in  his  school  room? 

40.  Is  a  marked  degree  of  excellence  in  the  per- 
formance of  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic  essential 
to  success  in  teaching  these  branches? 


QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE,    ETC.      351 

41.  Show  clearly  that  the  teacher  is  equally  responsi- 
ble for  the  physical  and  moral  training  of  his  pupils  as 
for  their  intellectual  training. 

42.  Name  and  illustrate  the  three  methods  com- 
monly employed  in  conducting  a  school  exercise. 

43.  State  four  advantages  of  school  records. 

44.  How  is  moral  responsibility  best  taught  to 
pupils  in  school? 

45.  "What  methods  should  be  employed  in  school 
to  train  the  pupils  in  oral  expression  ? 

46.  Is  a  teacher  legally  justified  in  correcting  pupils, 
by  punishment  or  other  means,  for  misconduct  on  the 
road  to  and  from  school? 

47.  Is  a  teacher  required  to  be  at  his  school  before 
the  time  of  opening? 

48.  Name  certain  incentives  to  study  which  a  teacher 
may  not  employ. 

49.  Enumerate  what  are  commonly  regarded  as 
proper  incentives  to  study. 

50.  In  what  respect  are  most  unsuccessful  teachers 
deficient? 

51.  Explain  the  Grube  method  of  teaching  numbers. 

52.  Why  should  Long  Division  be  taught  before 
Short  Division? 

53.  How  should  written  arithmetic  be  taught? 

54.  How  should  such  subjects  as  long,  square  and 
cubic  measures  be  taught? 

55.  How  should  dry  and  liquid  measures  and  weights 
be  taught? 

56.  What  are  the  two  chief  purposes  in  studying 
the  history  of  one's  own  country? 


352     QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE,    ETC. 

57.  How  should  writing  be  taught? 

58.  What  is  the  standard  of  excellence  in  teaching 
penmanship? 

59.  What  are  the  advantages  of  oral  spelling? 

60.  State  briefly  the  advantages  of  written  spelling. 

61.  How  should  the  spelling  lesson  be  prepared? 

62.  How   may  a  written  spelling   lesson   be   most 
advantageously  conducted? 

63.  Of  what  value  is  concert  reading? 

64.  By  what  names  should  children  in  primary  and 
grammar  schools  be  addressed? 

65.  Of  what  advantage  is  the  daily  record  of  reci- 
tations ? 

66.  State  fully  the  disadvantages  of  keeping  a  daily 
record  of  recitations. 

67.  Why  are  pupils  required  to  form  lines  in  enter- 
ing and  leaving  school  buildings? 

68.  Specify   the    advantages  of   the  self-reporting 
system. 

69.  What  objections  may  be  urged  against  the  self- 
reporting  system? 

70.  Explain  the  phonetic  method  of  teaching  chil- 
dren to  read,  and  state  its  chief  advantage. 

71.  In  what  does  the  phonic  method   of  teaching 
children  to  read  consist?     State  its  advantage. 

72.  Name  five  or  more  educational  reformers. 

73.  Who   was   Froebel?     For   what   is    he  noted? 
What  particular  educational  theories  did  he  advocate? 

74.  Who  was  the  author  of  '*  Emile?  "     What  was 
the  object  of  its  publication? 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  THEORY,  ETC.    353 

75.  For  what  is  Roger  Ascham  chiefly  noted? 

76.  State  briefly  the  more  prominent  characteristics 
of  Pestalozzi's  educational  principles.  To  what  ex- 
tent have  these  principles  influenced  the  education  of 
the  present  time? 


ANSWERS  TO    QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY    AND 
PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 

1.  Education  is  the  process  of  securing  rational 
freedom  through  the  subordination  of  every  power  of 
the  mind  and  organ  of  the  body  to  the  laws  of  reason 
and  morality. 

2.  Education  from  diic^  to  lead,  and  the  prefix  e, 
out,  is  the  leading  out,  or  the  developing  of  those 
powers  whose  germs  are  found  in  earliest  childhood. 

3.  The  natural  order  of  educating  the  faculties  is 
in  the  order  of  their  development  and  activity,  viz,  : 
1st.  The  "  perceptives,"  2ud.  The  *«  conceptives," 
3rd.  The  *'  reflectives." 

4.  Learning  is  merely  the  possession  of  knowledge, 
as  facts  of  history,  science  and  literature  ;  while  edu- 
cation signifies  that  mastery  over  one's  own  powers 
through  training  and  development  which  enables  him 
to  accomplish  more  than  would  be  possible  with  uned- 
ucated faculties.  Learning  gives  us  knowledge,  but 
often  leaves  us  with  a  barren  possession.  Education 
enables  us  to  use  whatever  Jinowledge  we  have  to  the 
best  advantage. 

23 


354         ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY,    ETC. 

5.  I.  Any  power  under  the  control  of  the  will  may 
be  cultivated  or  trained. 

II.  The  povvers  are  trained  in  one  w.iy,  and  in  one 
way,  only  ;  viz.,  by  ivist  use.  This  law  of  work  is  the 
one  unchangeable  law  of  progress  everywhere. 

III.  The  wisest  training  will  be  directed  to  those 
powers  which  are  conspicuously  active  at  the  time. 

IV.  An  indispensable  prerequisite  to  any  profitable 
training  is  careful  attention  to  the  matter  in  hand. 
[Hewett.]  * 

6.  First,  a  knowledge  of  the  matter  to  be  taught; 
second,  a  knowledge  of  the  being  whom  he  is  to  teach  ; 
and,  third,  a  knowledge  of  the  methods  by  which  the 
matter  is  to  be  taught. 

7.  First,  the  intellect  proper,  as  the  capacity  to 
comprehend  ;  second,  the  sensibility  as  the  capacity  to 
sympathize  with  the  sufferings  of  others ;  third,  the 
will,  as  the  power  to  chouse  or  determine. 

8.  The  perceptives  are  tho:se  faculties  by  which  we 
ol)tain  a  knowledi>;e  of  the  outside  world  through  the 
senses. 

The  conceptive  faculties  enable  us  to  conceive  or 
reproduce  the  image  of  absent  objects. 

The  reflectives  are  those  faculties  by  which  we  see 
the  relations  of  objects  through  the  agency  of  com- 
parison, judging,  reasoning,  etc. 

Intuition  is  that  power  by  which  we  know  certain 
truths  or  ideas  without  being  taught. 

9.  A  mental  power  is  the  ability  to  perform  an  in- 
tellectual operation  ;  while  a  mental  faculty  is  a  mental 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS   ON   THEORY,    ETC.        355 

power  acting  entirely  under  the   will;   as  observing, 
memory,  judgment, 

10.  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  includes 
the  investigation  of  the  various  susceptibilities,  powers 
and  faculties  of  mind  and  the  harmonious  development 
of  these  powers  and  faculties  so  as  to  secure  the  best 
result  of  which  they  are  capable. 

11.  I.  The  statement  of  the  different  theories,  plans 
and  processes  of  educators  of  the  past.  II.  The  suc- 
cess or  failure  of  the  theories  described. 

12.  The  Oral,  Socratic,  Text-Book,  Discussive,  Top- 
ical, and  Lecture  Methods. 

13.  Teaching  is  telling,  explaining,  illustrating;  and 
stops  short  of  requiring  any  action  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil.  It  is  exemplified  in  the  lecture  method  of  in- 
struction. Training  includes  as  a  preliminary  step  all 
employed  in  teaching,  and  requires  the  pupil  to  repeat, 
illustrate,  amplify  and  do  until  every  detail  is  familiar 
and  every  act  performed  with  facility  and  precision. 

14.  First,  he  must  have  good  health  :  this  ensures 
that  cheerful  buoyancy  which  inspires  respect  and  love 
in  the  minds  of  pupils.  Second,  he  must  have  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  branches  which  he  proposes  to  teach : 
without  this  he  can  not  have  the  confidence  of  his 
pupils.  Third,  he  must  possess  skill  in  teaching:  the 
lack  of  this  soon  engenders  indifference  and  discontent 
among  the  scholars.  Fourth,  he  must  be  a  master  to 
manage  and  command  :  that  is,  he  must  possess  skill 
in  management.  He  must  foresee  and  forestall  every 
tendency  toward  the  disintegration  of  his  educational 
forces. 


356        ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY,    ETC. 

15 .  School  government  is  the  subordination  of  all  the 
elements  involved  in  a  given  educational  system  to  the 
demands  of  an  enlightened  and  conscientious  standard 
of  human  development  of  mind,  body  and  heart. 

16.  This  statement  is  often  made  by  people  of  ex- 
tended observation  among  the  educational  classes. 
Some  facts  which  may  be  given  in  support  of  its  truth 
are, — 

I.  The  prominent  characteristics  of  the  most  noted 
educators  of  all  countries  and  ages  were  such  as  seem 
to  have  fitted  them  for  their  peculiar  vocation  and  for 
no  other. 

II.  It  is  observed  that  those  ladies  and  gentlemen 
of  our  own  time  who  have  great  success  in  teaching 
possess  certain  peculiarities  of  disposition  which  dis- 
tino-uish  them  by  a  marked  contrast  from  their  less 
successful  colleagues. 

III.  It  has  been  noted  that  persons  without  the 
greater  number  of  the  following  traits  have  never  been 
successful  in  the  work  of  teaching:  patience,  human 
sympathy,  cheerfulness,  self-control,  kindness,  moral 
courage,  enthusiasm,  persistence,  order,  method,  pru- 
dence, energy,  governing  power,  will,  vigilance,  firm 
ness,  tact  and  promptness. 

17.  The  teacher  who  imparts  facts  and  drills  his 
pupils  with  reference  to  impressions  to  be  made  on 
visitors  on  examination  day,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
fair  teacher,  since  he  "  larns  the  scholars  ;  "  but  if  he 
confine  himself  to  data,  definitions  and  rules,  and 
ignore  the  relation  of  these  facts,  the  impulses,  motives 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  THEORY,  ETC.   357 

and  susceptibilities  of  his  pupils,  —  if  he  neglect  those 
mental  germs  of  power  whose  development  alone  de- 
cides the  cultured  man,  —  in  short,  if  he  work  not  to 
secure  that  highest  development  of  human  power  styled 
self-control,  the  results  of  his  labors  must  class  him  as 
a  poor  educator. 

18.  The  five  senses: — seeing,  hearing,  feeling, 
tasting  and  smelling.  The  teacher  is  much  concerned 
with  the  first  and  second  of  these,  since  the  successful 
mental  training  of  children  is  largely  dependent  upon 
the  cultivation  of  the  sight  and  hearing. 

19.  Experience  teaches  that  if  the  perceptive  and 
conceptive  powers  receive  the  attention  of  the  teacher 
during  the  activity  of  these  powers,  little  time  or  oc- 
casion will  be  afforded  for  the  distinctive  training  of 
the  reflective  faculties  of  children  under  fifteen.  The 
teacher  should  constantly  avail  himself  of  the  pass- 
ing activities  of  perception,  memory  and  imagination 
displayed  by  his  pupils  to  impart  impressions  con- 
ducive to  the  noblest  manhood.  Of  course  the  slight- 
est manifestations  in  pupils  of  any  age  to  seek  for 
causes,  results  and  relations  should  never  be  dis- 
couraged. 

20.  I.  Versalility ^  that  the  mind  may  have  a  wide 
range  of  observation  and  constant  activity. 

II.  Strength^  that  the  attention  maybe  fixed  in  con- 
templation, and  that  impressions  ma}'  be  recalled  with 
freshness  and  distinctness. 

III.  Precision,  that  the  ideas  and  impressions  ob- 
tained by  observation  and  experience  may  be  properly 


358        ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY,    ETC. 

arranged  for  service  in  the  higher  exercise  of  reason- 
ing and  generalizing. 

21.  I.  He  should  at  once  furnish  every  pupil  some- 
thing to  do. 

II.  He  should  during  the  first  half  day  learn  the 
name  of  every  pupil. 

III.  Within  three  hours  he  should  have  every  mem- 
ber of  the  school  engaged  iu  the  regular  order  of  bus- 
iness. 

IV.  He  should  discourage  disorder  by  his  own  de- 
liberate and  methodical  movements. 

V.  He  should  at  once  establish  the  system  he  pro- 
poses to  continue. 

22.  A  teacher's  contract  should  specify  the  time  of 
opening,  length  of  term,  hours  per  day,  holidays, 
wases,  care  of  grounds,  building  and  apparatus,  and 
provisions  for  fuel,  janitor  work,  suspension  of  pupils 
and  agreement  as  to  resignation  of  teacher. 

23.  I.  The  pupils'  positions  and  movements  in  sit- 
ting, standing  and  walking. 

II.  Proper  and  sufficient  ventilation  of  the  school- 
room. 

III.  Sufficient  light  and  proper  position  of  pupils 
with  respect  to  light. 

IV.  Calisthenic  exercises  to  bring  into  judicious  use 
neglected  muscles. 

24.  He  should  be  trained  to  write  on  slate  or  black- 
board sufficiently  well  to  have  his  writing  easily  read, 
to  read  without  drawling  words  of  one  and  two  sylla- 
bles, to  spell  orally  by  sound  and  by  letter,  the  greater 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIO^'S    ON    THEORY,    ETC.        359 

number  of  words  found  in  his  reading  lessons,  to 
count  by  ones  and  twos  to  100,  to  write  numbers  to 
100,  to  count  and  write  by  the  Roman  method  to  L, 
and  to  name  the  days  of  the  week,  the  months  of  the 
year  and  his  county  and  State. 

25.  The  Word  Method,  the  Sentence  Method,  the 
Phonic  Method,  the  Object  Method,  the  Alphabet 
Method.  Two  or  more  of  the  above  are  usually 
employed  by  nearly  all  teachers. 

26.  A  daily  drill  in  phonics  for  a  few  months  gives 
to  the  pupil  a  clearness  and  precision  of  speech  which 
will  permanently  distinguish  him  from  one  who  has 
not  had  this  advantage. 

27.  The  Word  Method  consists  in  presenting  words 
as  objects  and  teaching  children  to  recognize  them  as 
individual  units  of  the  sentence.  This  method  has  to 
a  great  extent  supplanted  the  old  method  of  teaching 
the  alphabet  before  words. 

28.  The  attention  of  the  pupils  is  called  to  some 
familiar  object,  upon  which  many  questions  are  asked. 
As  soon  as  the  children's  attention  is  secured  and  in- 
terest aroused  a  picture  of  the  object  is  displayed,  or 
drawn  upon  the  board.  The  picture  is  discussed  for 
some  minutes,  when  tlie  name  of  the  object  is  printed 
beside  the  picture,  and  the  children  are  informed  that 
this  too  is  a  picture,  —  a  word-picture.  After  holding 
their  attention  to  this  for  a  few  moments  they  are 
directed  to  find  other  word-pictures  like  this  on  the 
chart.  This  comprises  the  first  lesson.  Tiie  pupils 
are  dismissed  to  their  seats  and  directed  to  copy  the 


360        ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY,    ETC. 

word-picture.  At  a  later  lesson  other  words  are 
treated  as  the  first,  and  words  previously  learned  are 
reviewed,  hunted  for  on  the  chart  and  formed  into 
sentences.  All  words  learned  are  printed  on  the  board 
by  the  teacher  and  copied  by  the  pupils,  at  first  in 
Roman  and  afterward  in  script,  until  their  forms  be- 
come familiar. 

29.  I.  To  develop  clear,  pleasant  and  impressive 
speech  in  the  delivery  of  extemporaneous  or  written 
language. 

II.  To  cultivate  the  power  of  instantly  grasping  the 
thought  as  presented  on  the  printed  or  written  page. 

30.  Send  as  many  pupils  to  the  board  as  can  be  ac- 
commodated, and  require  them  to  write  their  names 
at  the  top  in  their  best  writing.  Assign  some  simple 
exercise,  to  be  placed  on  the  board  ;  when  the  work  is 
completed,  call  pupils  to  face  you.  As  each  in  turn  is 
named  to  explain,  his  voice,  face  and  name  (written 
over  his  head)  will  associate  themselves  in  your  mind 
until  you  can,  without  difliculty,  call  the  name  of  each 
pupil  before  you. 

31.  The  so-called  higher  branches  all  extend  the 
teacher's  intellectual  resources,  and  strengthen  his 
power  over  difficulties.  As  the  teacher's  work  con- 
sists mainly  in  *'  managing"  his  pupils,  and  cultivat- 
ing in  them  a  desire  for  knowledge  and  improvement, 
his  familiarity  with  the  higher  branches  gives  him  ad- 
vantages in  these  efibrts  which  render  him  infinitely 
more  successful  than  he  could  be  without  them. 

32.  The  daily  attendance  of  all  pupils  belonging  to 
the  school. 


ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS   ON   THEORY,    ETC.        361 

33.  The  total  enrollment  and  average  daily  attend- 
ance of  pupils,  together  with  such  special  items  as  may 
be  required  by  the  officers  of  the  school. 

34.  I.  To  test  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

II.  To  cultivate  the  habit  of  careful  preparation  and 
accurate  expression. 

III.  To  supplement  the  information  gained  from  the 
text-book. 

IV.  To  direct  the  pupils  in  their  preparation  of  the 
lessons. 

V.  To  stimulate  the  pupils,  arouse  their  attention 
and  cultivate  in  them  habits  of  investigation. 

35.  That  the  pupils  may  early  learn  the  function 
and  care  of  every  organ  of  their  bodies,  that  they  may 
know  the  necessity  of  pure  air,  sufficient  and  whole- 
some food,  alternation  ot  rest  and  exercise  and  under- 
stand the  dependence  of  the  mental  powers  upon 
bodily  health,  phy.-.ical  restraint  and  moral  culture. 

36.  The  perceptive  faculties  are  exercised  by  writ- 
ing, drawing,  spelling  and  botany ;  the  conceptive 
faculties  by  reading,  history,  geography  and  compo- 
sition ;  while  the  reflective  faculties  are  best  exercised 
and  developed  by  mathematics,  rhetoric  and  logic. 

37.  Only  so  far  as  to  aid  a  partial  comprehension 
of  principles,  — never  in  their  ap].)lication  to  the  as- 
signed lesson."  A  teacher  may  illustrate  ix,  principle  by 
its  application  to  work  similar  to  that  required.  As- 
sistance should  be  withheld  until  the  teacher  is  satisfied 
the  pupil  has  exhausted  his  own  resources,  and  evinces 
signs  of  discouragement.    Individual  assistance  should 


362       ANSWERS   TO   QUESTIONS    ON   THEORY,    ETC. 

be  given  rarely  in  the  presence  of  the  class.  Explain 
difficulties  to  the  class,  and  command  the  attention  of 
every  member. 

38.  •'  A  programme  conduces  to  good  order,  dimin- 
ishes the  teacher's  labor,  cultivates  methodical  habits^ 
and  makes  his  teaching  more  effective." 

39.  Clearness  of  voice  and  distinctness  of  speech 
are  indispensable  in  the  management  of  classes;  but 
the  force  must  be  constantly  subdued  and  the  pitch 
slightly  below  the  natural  to  secure  the  respectful 
attention  of  pupils. 

40.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  hovv  a  teacher  un- 
skilled in  rapid,  elegant  penmanship,  natural  impres- 
sive and  effective  reading,  and  accurate  and  rapid 
arithmetical  calculations,  can  inspire  his  pupils  with 
sufficient  admiration  for  these  arts  todesiie  more  than 
the  teacher  presents  as  models.  The  highest  skill  in 
these  branches,  upon  the  part  of  the  teacher,  is  essen- 
tial to  their  successful  teaching.  Few  teachers  insist 
upon  a  higher  standard  than  they,  themselves,  possess. 
Hence,  but  moderate  skill  in  these  branches  may  be 
expected  from  pupils  whose  teachers  are  not  proficients. 

41.  To  secure  the  highest  intellectual  attainments, 
certain  previous  conditions  are  essential :  these  are 
mental  vigor  and  sensual  restraint.  The  first  of  these 
is  secured  only  through  the  judicious  exercise  and  em- 
ployment of  the  mental  and  physical  organs.  The 
second  condition  is  attained  by  the  training  of  the 
moral  faculties  to  acts  of  justice,  duty  and  self-denial. 
The  vigorous  body  gives  energy  to  the  brain,  and  the 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS    ON   THEORY,    ETC.        363 

self-poised  conscience  imparts  accuracy  and  decision 
to  the  perceptions  of  the  senses  and  conceptions  of  the 
mind. 

42.  I.  Teaching, or  instruction,  by  which  the  teachc 
orally  or  through  the  text-book,  presents  the  principles 
of  the  subject  in  definition  and  illustration. 

II.  Development,  or  Socratic  questioning,  by  which 
the  teacher  tells  the  pupil  nothing,  but  by  a  series  of 
skillful  questions,  beginning  with  what  is  already  clear 
to  the  pupil's  mind,  he  leads  him  step  by  step  to  com- 
prehend the  principle  and  its  application. 

III.  Training,  or  drilling,  by  which  through  instruc- 
tion, practice  and  criticism,  the  subject  in  all  its 
details  is  fully  mastered. 

43.  Accurate  school  records  afford  the  following 
advantages:  1.  They  aid  the  teacher  in  classification 
and  promotion  of  pupils.  2.  They  give  information 
to  parents  and  school  officers.  3.  They  furnish  im- 
portant educational  statistics.  4.  They  exert  a  bene- 
ficial influence  upon  both  teachers  and  pupils. 

44.  By  first  explaining  the  rights  and  duties  of 
pupils,  and  then  insisting  that  these  shall  be  mutually 
observed  and  respected.  In  addition,  pupils  should 
be  taught  early  in  their  school  life  that  the  greatest 
success  and  happiness  come  only  from  individual  in- 
dependence, and  that  independence  exists  alone  in  a 
ready  performance  of  duty,  a  cheerful  self-denial  and 
a  conscious  rectitude. 

45.  I.  The  pupils  should  be  taught  to  breathe 
properly. 


364       ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY,    ETC. 

II.  They  should  be  drilled  on  the  oral  elements  un- 
til every  sound  and  combination  can  be  distinctly  and 
correctly  uttered. 

III.  They  should  be  subjected  to  frequent  drills  in 
voice  slides  and  waves. 

IV.  The  test  of  all  reading  exercises  should  be  the 
ability  of  the  teacher  to  understand  every  word  read 
without  referring  to  the  text-book. 

46.  The  Supreme  Courts  of  a  number  of  States  have 
decided  that  school  directors  have  the  right  to  make 
rules  governing  the  conduct  of  scholars  on  the  grounds 
or  on  the  road  to  or  from  school.  The  teacher  is  the 
directors'  authorized  agent  and  executive  in  all  matters 
pertaining  to  the  management  of  the  school  so  far  as 
their  authority  may  be  delegated  to  him.  Before  pun- 
ishing pupils  for  misdemeanors  committed  on  the  road 
to  or  from  school,  teachers  should  have  this  authority 
duly  given. 

47.  He  is  rarely  required  by  law  or  contract  to  be 
present  before  the  time  of  opening,  but  his  interest 
in  the  welfare  of  his  pupils  and  his  zeal  in  his  work 
should  prompt  him  to  be  at  his  post  early  enough  to 
forestall  difficulties  and  make  the  necessary  prepara- 
tion to  begin  on  time.  A  good  teacher,  like  a  good 
scholar,  is  always  a  little  ahead  of  time. 

48.  Ridicule,  force,  additional  tasks,  fear  of  punish- 
ment, prizes,  merit  marks,  and  the  granting  oi  special 
privileges. 

49.  I.  The  desire  for  knowledge. 
II.  The  hope  to  secure  perfection. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY,    ETC.        365 

III.  The  approbation  of  the  teicher. 

IV.  The  approbation  of  parents  and  friends. 

V.  The  pleasure  of  overcoming  difficulties. 

VI.  The  enjoyment  of  useful  employment. 

VII.  The  prospect  of  a  successful  manhood. 

50.  They  are  deficient  in  management,  otherwise 
termed  tact,  or  governing  power. 

51.  The  Grube  method  consists  in  teaching  begin- 
ners the  combinations  of  numbers  less  than  ten  in 
addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and  division. 
Various  articles,  such  as  buttons,  beans,  grains  of 
corn,  pebbles,  etc.,  are  at  first  employed  until  the 
children  can  perform  the  operations  without  these  aids. 

52.  Since  every  step  in  the  process  of  long  division 
is  placed  before  the  pupil  in  figures,  he  can  hold  each 
step  with  his  eye  until  the  next  is  taken ;  and  if  an 
interruption  occur  or  the  teacher  wish  to  repeat  or 
impress  the  operation,  the  work  as  far  as  completed, 
remains  before  the  eye.  This  is  but  an  application  of 
object-teaching,  and  presents  the  principle  of  division 
much  more  clearly  than  the  process  of  short  division, 
in  which  the  operations  are  carried  on  almost  entirely 
in  the  mind. 

53.  Always  in  connection  with  mental  arithmetic, 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  with  practical  illustrations  taken 
from  the  school-room,  yard,  and  neighboring  stores. 
A  subject  will  be  sooner  mastered  and  longer  retained 
if  practically  applied  at  the  time  and  presented  with 
small  numbers  which  can  be  easily  held  in  the  mind. 


366   ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  THEORY,  ETC. 

54.  By  having  pupils  supplied  with  yard  sticks 
divided  into  feet  and  inches,  and  by  requiring  them 
to  measure  distances,  surfaces  and  solids  in  and  about 
the  school-house. 

55.  The  teacher  and  pupils  may  borrow  pint,  quart, 
gallon,  peck  and  bushel  measures,  and  construct  the 
usual  tables  by  actually  measuring  water  and  sand. 
This  practice  fixes  the  relative  capacity  of  these  meas- 
ures as  no  drill  upon  tables  and  problems  can  ever  do. 
The  same  course  should  be  pursued  with  the  various 
weights, 

56.  I.  To  cultivate  the  virtue  of  patriotism. 

II.  To  teach  the  embryonic  citizen  that  a  certain 
train  of  causes  produces  certain  definite  results  whose 
evils  may  be  avoided  or  remedied  by  appropriate  and 
timely  action. 

57.  After  the  necessary  instruction  in  position,  pen- 
holding  and  movement  is  given,  individual  elements, 
letters,  words  and  sentences  should  be  presented  on  the 
blackboard.  Attention  should  be  called  to  one  thing 
at  a  time.  The  characters  should  be  accurately  formed 
and  analyzed  before  the  pupils  are  called  upon  to  re- 
produce them.  Much  time  and  many  efforts  may  be 
required  to  master  one  element  or  letter,  but  the  ex- 
penditure will  be  amply  repaid  in  the  rapid  progress 
secured  as  the  pupil  advances  from  letter  to  letter. 
Writing  is  an  art  and  skill  in  its  execution  is  possible 
to  all  who  are  taught. 

58.  The  standard  of  excellence  in  penmanship  to 
which   every  teacher    should    endeavor   to    bring   his 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS  ON  THEORY,  ETC.    367 

pupils  is  the  ability  to  write  a  uniformly  legible  style 
of  writing,  free  from  meaningless  flourishes,  and  exe- 
cuted with  an  easy,  rapid,  graceful,  movement,  which 
may  be  continued  for  hours  without  weariness. 

59.  Oral  spelling,  if  properly  conducted,  cultivates 
the  ear  to  hear  quickly  and  accurately.  If  the  teacher 
is  a  correct  speaker  and  exacting  in  securing  correct- 
ness in  articulation,  the  pupil  acquires  a  facility  and 
accuracy  in  pronunciation  that  will  dispense  with  much 
laborious  research  in  later  years. 

To  secure  these  results  the  teacher  should  observe 
these  cautions  :  Never  repeat  a  word  or  a  syllable,  nor 
permit  a  pupil  to  repeat  syllables.  No  pupil  should 
try  a  second  time  to  spell  a  word.  Require  pupils  to 
pronounce  the  words  correctly  before  and  after  spell- 
ing. Each  letter  and  syllable  should  be  distinctly  and 
accurately  uttered  in  passing,  but  not  repeated,  i.e., 
not  uttered  a  second  time. 

60.  Since  skill  in  spelling  is  required  chiefly  for 
writing,  it  follows  that  what  one  does  most  with  a 
constant  purpose  of  improvement  in  view,  he  does 
best.  Hence,  the  practice  of  writing  words  through 
several  years  of  school  life,  familiarizing  their  forms 
to  the  eye,  finally  fixes  the  order  of  letters  composing 
a  word  permanently  in  the  mind. 

61.  Correct  spelling  must  be  mastered  through  hand 
and  eye.  As  soon  as  the  child  has  learned  to  form  the 
letters  in  script  he  should  prepare  all  spelling  lessons 
by  writing  the  words  two  or  more  times  on  slate  or 
paper. 


368        ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY,    ETC. 

62.  I.  Require  pupils  to  use  pen,  ink  and  a  blank- 
book. 

II.  Pronounce  each  word  accurately  and  but  once. 

III.  Require  words  written  neatly  in  plain  char- 
acters. 

IV.  Allow  no  alterations,  additions  or  erasures. 
All  omissions,  interlineations,  or  indistinct  letters 
should  be  counted  as  errors. 

V.  Have  pupils  exchange  books  and  mark  each 
other's  errors  with  lead  pencil^  noting  also  the  grade 
of  the  work,  each  corrector  writing  his  name  below. 

VI.  Have  monitors  collect  books  for  teacher's  ex- 
amination. 

VII.  If  violations  of  No.  IV.  are  found  mark  the 
word  zero. 

VHI.  If  any  corrector  has  failed  to  correct  an  error 
mark  him  zero  for  the  error  he  has  failed  to  note. 

Another  method  equally  good  is  to  have  each  pupil 
correct  his  own  work.  This  plan  has  the  advantage 
of  time,  since  the  delay  of  exchanging  is  avoided,  and, 
further,  the  teacher  marks  all  the  errors  (the  speller's 
and  the  corrector's),  in  a  given  book  at  once. 

63.  As  a  substitute  for  the  reading  exercise  it  is  of 
too  little  value  to  justify  its  employment.  As  a  means 
of  developing  purity,  force  and  flexibility  of  tone,  it  is 
of  sufficient  value  to  warrant  the  teacher  in  using  it 
occasionally  at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson. 

64.  Always  by  their  Christian  names — never  as 
"Brown,"  "Smith,"  "Jones,"  etc.,  nor  Miss  "  So 
and  So,"  or  Master  "This  or  that,"  nor  "Sonny," 
"  Honey  "  or  "  Darling." 


ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY,    ETC.        369 

65.  The  pupils,  conscious  that  a  daily  record  of 
their  recitations  and  deportment  is  kept,  are  dis- 
posed to  recite  and  act  more  uniformly  well  than  they 
would  with  an  occasional  record  of  these  items.  The 
cards  of  record  being  promiscuously  arranged  for  each 
recitation,  pupils  are  called  unexpectedly  and  are  kejjt 
on  the  alert.  Again,  the  teacher,  anxious  to  mark  his 
pupils  upon  a  common  basis,  assigns  to  each  about  the 
same  amount  of  duty. 

66.  The  teacher  having  to  estimate  the  value  of 
each  answer,  recitation  or  exercise,  consumes  in  the 
calculation  and  record  of  such  value,  much  time  that 
were  better  spent  in  the  management  of  his  classes. 

67.  1.  To  secure  better  order  in  movements. 

II.  To  prevent  the  smaller  children  from  being  in- 
jured by  the  rushing  of  large  boys. 

in.  To  train  pupils  to  habits  of  order,  system,  and 
deliberate  movements. 

68.  The  better  class  of  pupils  in  whom  the  influ- 
ence of  conscience  and  love  of  approbation  are  strong, 
fearful  of  disgrace  by  prevarication,  are  restrained, 
and  thus  constitute  the  nucleus  of  a  well  ordered 
school.  A  large  portion  of  well  inclined,  but  weaker 
children,  more  or  less  under  the  influence  of  the 
former,  out  of  consideration  of  dependence  or  "  pop- 
ularity," fall  into  the  practice  of  their  stronger 
neighbors.  These  two  classes  being  left  to  govern 
themselves  in  a  measure,  the  teacher  has  opportunity 
to  attend  to  the  idle,  mischievous  and  dilatory  pupils. 

69.  The  report  of  conduct  being  left  entirely  with 

24 


370        ANSWERS    TO    QUESTIONS    ON    THEORY,    ETC. 

the  scholars,  there  is,  even  among  the  well  inclined,  a 
daily  temptation  to  violate  the  truth.  Those  pupils 
whose  motives  and  habits  are  bad,  seeing  the  opportu- 
nity afforded  to  stand  as  high  as  their  more  deserving 
schoolmates,  do  not  hesitate  to  take  advantage  of  this 
reliance  upon  their  honor ;  and  unless  they  know  their 
statement  will  be  challenged,  claim  "  perfect,"  after 
doing  their  utmost  to  escape  every  requirement  of  the 
teacher. 

70.  The  phonetic  method,  which  might  properly  be 
termed  phonotypic,  requires  modified  characters  rep- 
resenting all  the  sounds  of  the  language.  Its  purpose 
is  to  enable  the  child  after  the  sounds  have  been 
taught,  to  help  himself  in  the  pronunciation  of  each 
new  word. 

71.  The  phonic  method  consists  in  teaching  the 
sounds  of  words  through  the  powers  of  the  letters 
composing  them.  It  employs  no  modified  letters. 
Words  containing  silent  letters  are  at  first  omitted, 
the  attention  being  confined  to  words  containing  short 
vowels.  The  advantages  claimed  for  the  phonic  and 
phonetic  methods  are  an  earlier  recognition  of  sounds 
and  a  greater  skill  and  accuracy  in  articulation. 

72.  Eoger  Ascham,  Friedrich  Froebel,  Desiderius 
Erasmus,  John  Amos  Comenius  [Komenski],  Jean 
Jacques  Rousseau,  Johann  Heinrich  Pestalozzi,  and 
Immanuel  Kant. 

73.  Froebel,  born  in  Thuringia,  1782,  was  the 
founder  of  the  Kindergarten.  Many  of  the  improve- 
ments in  primary  teaching  may  be  ascribed  to  him. 


ANSWERS    TO    QUKSTIONS    ON    THEORY,    ETC.        371 

The  principles  involved  in  his  theory  of  education 
may  be  summed  up  in  the  single  sentence:  «' Free 
creativeness  is  at  once  the  means  and  end  of  educa- 
tion." 

74.  "  Eniile  "  was  written  by  Eousseau  (born  in 
1712),  in  which  he  portrays  an  ideal  education  accord- 
ing to  his  peculiar  views.  The  book  attracted  much 
attention  at  the  time  of  its  publication,  but  the  atheist- 
ical tendencies  of  the  author's  writings  and  his  general 
erratic  conduct  brought  condemnation  upon  this  as 
upon  his  other  works. 

75.  Roger  Ascham  was  Queen  Elizabeth's  teacher 
of  Greek  and  Latin.  His  only  educational  work  of 
importance  was  the  *'  School  Master"  [Scholemas- 
ter],  in  which  he  advocated  a  milder  and  more  careful 
training  of  youth  than  that  in  vogue  at  his  time.  The 
work  deals  mainly  with  the  teaching  of  Latin  and 
Greek. 

76.  Pestalozzi's  principles  of  education  were 
founded  upon  natural  development.  He  considered 
and  taught  that  the  end  of  education  is  the  harmoni- 
ous development  of  all  the  natural  powers.  Recog- 
nizing the  existence  of  a  certain  order  of  growth  and 
activity,  he  taught  that  all  instruction  should  harmon- 
ize with  this  order  in  time  and  character.  He  has 
exerted  a  greater  influence  over  the  general  theory 
and  practice  of  teaching  than  any  man  of  modern 
times. 


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The  Elementary  Series  coutains  60  papers  of  5  problems 
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the  responsibility  and  proficiency  of  pupils. 


ADVANTAGES. 

They  relieve  the  teacher,  savinj;  hours  of  drudgery  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  suitable  problems  and  examination  of  work. 

They  inspire  the  pupils  with  all  the  enthusiasm  and  ambition  of  an 
examination. 

They  confirm  the  principles  taught  in  the  text  books. 

They  furnish  the  greatest  variety  of  problems. 

The  problems  being  different,  there  is  no  copying. 

They  afford  the  readiest  and  simplest  means  of  examination. 

They  serve  all  the  purposes  of  review  with  none  of  the  distaste. 

They  contain  nothing  but  the  most  practical  problems. 

They  furnish  the  best  possible  test  of  the  pupils'  relative  standing. 

They  are  printed  on  paper  7x3i  inches,  in  large  clear  type,  with 
answers  on  a  separate  sheet,  secured  iu  a  strong  envelope. 

PRICES. 

Any  one  of  the  five  series,   with  answers  to  the  prob- 
lems, together  with  a  detailed  plan  for  obtaining 

the  best  results,  sent  postpaid  on  receipt  of 25  cents. 

The  five  series  sent  to  one  address,   at  one  time $1.00 

Four  series  sent  at  one  time  to  any  person  who  has 

previously  ordered  one  series 85  cents. 


TESTIMONIALS. 

I  find  the  plan  admirably  adapted  to  class  examination  and 
review.— Wm.  O.  Rogers,  Supt.  City  Schools,  New  Orleans,  La. 

I  hope  these  papers  may  be  published.  I  think  they  will  meet 
with  a  hearty  reception  by  good  teachers  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
tiy.— James  S.  Stevenson,  Prin.  Clay  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

The  superior  skill  and  accuracy  displayed  by  the  applicants 
for  teachers'  certificates  examined  by  me,  and  who  have  had  the 
benefit  of  the  Arithmetic  Papers,  attest  their  value  beyond  any- 
thing I  could  say  in  their  behalf. — Jas.  Squike,  County  Supt,, 
Madison  County,  111. 

Address  all  orders  to 

I.  H.  BROWN  &  COMPANY, 

ST.  LOUIS,  MO. 


14  DAY  USE 

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on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

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Berkeley 

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